history- kinda my version
Change is the only constant in life! - Heraclitus, On Nature (-500)
the only law nature follows is, Change. make the best of this beautiful and fleeting available cosmic window.
प्रकृति में परिवर्तन ही एकमात्र स्थाई है! तो क्यों न हम इस खूबसूरत और क्षणिक अलौकिक पल को जियें आनंद और उत्साह से
Nikola Tesla famously stated, "If you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency, and vibration". He believed that everything in existence—matter, light, and electricity—is fundamentally energy operating at different rates of vibration rather than just physical, static objects.
Thinking in terms of energy, frequency, and vibration means viewing the universe not as static matter, but as a dynamic, interconnected ocean of waves and resonance. Everything—thoughts, emotions, and matter—is energy vibrating at specific frequencies, influencing reality through attraction and resonance.
View problems, health, and situations not as fixed blocks, but as energy waves that can be shifted by raising or changing their frequency (e.g., through thoughts or intentions).
"Everything is energy and that’s all there is to it. Match the frequency of the reality you want and you cannot help but get that reality." — Often attributed to Tesla/Einstein.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Tags:
[NAFTA] [NA] [LATAM] [AMER] [APAC] [EMEA] [EU]
[India] [US] [Japan] [UK] [Pakistan] [Germany]
[GeoPolitics]
[Economics]
[Culture]
[Art][Books][Book][Cinema][Drama][Garment][Music]
[Sports][phy]
[Medicine][Chemistry][Bio]
[Philosophy]
[Military]
[Research]
[Technology][tech]
[Telco]
[Computer][Computing][www]
[Management][mgmt]
[Business][biz]
[Finance]
[Self]
[History][Archaeo]
[Polity][activism]
[GoI]
[Education][edu]
[Travel]
[FnB]
[Env] - Environment
[Corporate]
[Aviation]
[Extreme]
[Mntngg]
[Maths]
[COE] Cunk On Earth
[Space][cosmos][Astro]
[Disaster] [accident] [misadv] [pain]
[Sufi]
[Who]
[Crime]
[NSE]
[PSU]
[Case] - learnings from the society
[Godman]
[Energy]
[Ety] / Etymology
[Geography][Geo]
[Jack]
[Harry][extreme][sick][harassment][terr][dare][vex][nuisance][harass][molest][bug][coercion]
📌 - landmark
Equating the 4.5 billion years of the earth to 24 hours of a clock in which a second signifes 52,000 years; a minute 31 lakh years; and an hour 1.87 crore years, the scientist computed that humans arrived around 30 seconds to midnight. "The intervention that has happened since industrial revolution signify just 4/1000 of a second before the clock struck 12," the scientist said, highlighting the insignificance of man in the scheme of things. (Apr 9, 2011)
M = million years
Physics (of fields/forces/interactions/energy/matter) -> Chemistry (of energy/charges/ions/elements) -> Biology (of cells/beings/life)
Philosophy (of knowledge/reality/existence)
Philosophy (of knowledge/reality/existence)
Mathematics (of patterns/symmetry/symbols)
Order from earliest to newest: Lower > Middle > Upper
Order from earliest to newest: Eo- > Paleo- > Meso- > Neo-
Order from earliest to newest: Eon (aka Eonothem) > Era (Eranthem) > Period (aka System) > Epoch (aka Series) > Age (aka Stage)
Region + Time + Situation = Everything. Every thing or being is a product of it's region (space), time and it's situation(s).
The hadron epoch was a distinct phase in the early universe, lasting from roughly 10⁻⁶ seconds to 1 second after the Big Bang. During this period, the universe cooled enough for free quarks to bind together via the strong force, forming composite particles called hadrons, such as protons and neutrons.
Temperature Drop: The temperature fell from about 10¹³ Kelvin down to roughly 10¹⁰ Kelvin.
Quark Confinement: Free quarks and gluons condensed out of the prior quark-gluon plasma to permanently lock into triplets (baryons like protons and neutrons) and quark-antiquark pairs (mesons).
Matter-Antimatter Annihilation: As the universe continued to expand and cool, thermal energy dropped too low to create new hadron-antihadron pairs spontaneously. Most matter and antimatter particles collided and annihilated into high-energy photons, leaving behind the tiny residual surplus of matter that makes up everything in the universe today.
At about 1 second, when the temperature reached roughly 10⁹ Kelvin, hadrons stopped interacting heavily to create new heavy particles, marking the start of the Lepton Epoch where leptons (electrons, neutrinos) dominated interactions.
light is both, a wave and a particle - string theory
dense huge clouds of hot gases getting crushed by immense gravitational forces
hydrogen - di-atomic (covalent bond)
big bang -> hot plasma -> hydrogen -> stellar nucleosynthesis lead to helium -> 3 atoms of helium fused together to form carbon -> dust appeared? -> carbon and helium made oxygen -> highly inflammable hydrogen and combustion-supporting oxygen reacted on a spark causing an abrupt explosion releasing lot of energy and water -> in extremely corners of the space, water got froze into ice or mixed with cosmic dust to form meteors, comets, asteroids and others.
Also crucial are the elements important to life. For us, these are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. But there are several scientific mysteries about how these elements wound up together on Earth. For example, scientists would not expect a planet that formed so close to the sun to naturally incorporate carbon and nitrogen. These elements become solid only under very cold temperatures, such as exist in the outer solar system, not nearer to the sun where Earth is. Also, carbon, like gold, is rare at the Earth’s surface. That’s because carbon chemically bonds more often with iron than rock. Gold also bonds more often with metal, so most of it ends up in the Earth’s core. So, how did the small amounts found at the surface get there? Could a similar process also have unfolded on other planets?
The last ingredient is water. Water now covers about 70% of Earth’s surface, but how much sat on the surface 4 billion years ago? Like carbon and nitrogen, water is much more likely to become a part of solid objects that formed at a greater distance from the sun. To explain its presence on Earth, one theory proposes that a class of meteorites called carbonaceous chondrites formed far enough from the sun to have served as a water-delivery system.
spdfghi: 1s2 - 2s2 - 2p6 - 3s2
strong nuclear forces led to hydrogen atoms to bound together as di-atomic hydrogen (covalent bond), the slightest spark gave the energy to H2 atoms to share it's 2 electrons of with electron-deficient oxygen atom. Hydrogen provided electrons and oxygen sucked them.
The (longest) half-life of an isotope is over 160 trillion times greater than the age of the universe (which is 4.35×10^17 seconds). The isotope is tellurium-128.
Planck Epoch (0 to 10⁻⁴³ seconds): The earliest time. Gravity is unified with other forces. Physics as we know it cannot yet describe this state.
-13832M: upper range of age of universe. (13,832)
-13800M: The age of the universe is currently estimated at 13.8 billion years and the diagram displays the various stages that the universe has gone through. It shows that the first atoms formed at roughly 380,000 years after the Big Bang and that the first stars started to shine after around 200 million years. The first galaxies started forming after approximately 400 million years, with dark energy forming after around 10 billion years, so 3.8 billion years ago.
-13772M (±60M): age of universe. 9M years later, our solar system started to form at Local Interstellar Cloud, Local Bubble, Orion–Cygnus Arm, in Milky Way. (13,772; 13,772,000,000)
-13712M: lower range of age of universe. (13,712)
Inflation, the first era supported by experimental evidence, a period of exponential expansion that ends with the conversion of energy into particles during reheating.
Hot Big Bang, the universe cools and expands from a hot dense state, forming baryons, nuclei, and the Cosmic Microwave Background. (CMB)
Gravity builds cosmic structure, reduced density allows matter to dominate over radiation for control of expansion and gravitational attraction builds stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies.
Cosmic acceleration, continued expansion allows dark energy to overcome gravitational force, inhibiting larger structures.
10^(-30) or quecto < 10^(-27) or ronto < 10^(-24) or yocto
yocto < zepto < atto < femto < pico < nano < micro < milli < centi < deci
10^(-24) or yokto < 10^(-21) or zepto < 10^(-18) or atto < 10^(-15) or femto < 10^(-12) or pico < 10^(-9) or nano < 10^(-6) or micro < 10^(-3) or milli < 10^(-2) or centi < 10^(-1) or deci
deca < hecto < kilo < mega < giga < tera < peta < exa < zetta < yotta
10^(1) or deca < 10^(2) or hecto < 10^(3) or kilo < 10^(6) or mega < 10^(9) or giga < 10^(12) or tera < 10^(15) or peta < 10^(18) or exa < 10^(21) or zetta < 10^(24) or yotta
0 sec: Planck Epoch starts.
1 quecto-quectosec: ???
10 quecto-quectosec: ???
100 quecto-quectosec: ???
1 ronto-quectosec: ???
10 ronto-quectosec: ???
100 ronto-quectosec: ???
1 yocto-quectosec: ???
10 yocto-quectosec: ???
100 yocto-quectosec: ???
1 zepto-quectosec: ???
10 zepto-quectosec: ???
100 zepto-quectosec: ???
1 atto-quectosec: ???
10 atto-quectosec: ???
100 atto-quectosec: ???
1 femto-quectosec: ???
10 femto-quectosec: ???
100 femto-quectosec: ???
1 pico-quectosec: Planck Epoch ends. (lasted between 0 and10⁻⁴³ seconds or 1 femtoronto): The earliest time. Gravity is unified with other forces. Physics as we know it cannot yet describe this state. 10⁻⁴³ is expressed as 10⁻¹³ × 10⁻³⁰ (picoquecto-) or 10⁻¹⁶ × 10⁻²⁷ (femtoronto-).
10 pico-quectosec: ???
100 pico-quectosec: ???
1 nano-quectosec: ???
10 nano-quectosec: ???
100 nano-quectosec: ???
1 micro-quectosec: ???
100 femto-yoctosec:
1 pico-yoctosec: Grand Unification Epoch ends (10⁻⁴³ to 10⁻³⁶ seconds): Gravity splits away from the other forces.
1 pico-yoctosec (or 1 micro-quectosec): Inflation: Cosmic inflation expands space by a factor of the order of 10^26 over a time of the order of 10^(-36) to 10^(-32) seconds.
1 pico-yoctosec: The value 10⁻³⁶ does not have an official prefix in the International System of Units (SI). The lowest officially recognized SI submultiple prefix is quecto- (10⁻³⁰). In extended or unofficial proposals, 10⁻³⁶ has been called micromicro-, tenth-micromicro-, or agana-.The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) maintains strict style and writing rules for the International System of Units (SI) to ensure global clarity and standardization.
10 micro-quectosec:
100 micro-quectosec:
1 milli-quectosec: Inflationary Epoch ends (10⁻³⁶ to 10⁻³² seconds): The universe grows very fast, expanding from subatomic size to a huge space.
10 pico-yoctosec:
100 pico-yoctosec:
1 femtosec:
10 femtosec:
100 femtosec:
1 picosec: Electroweak Epoch ends. (10⁻³⁶ to 10⁻¹² seconds): Forces separate further and elementary particles form.
Reheating: Converts the energy in the inflation field into a thermal bath of Standard Model particles, initiating the Hot Big Bang. Many mechanisms have been proposed.
Baryogenesis: Matter and antimatter are created with one extra particle of matter for every 10^10 pairs. The pairs annihilate producing photons and leaving the matter particles. Many mechanisms have been proposed but no observations select one.
10 picosec: 10^(-11) sec or 0.01 nanosecs - Electroweak phase transition: The electroweak interaction becomes manifest as two distinct forces, the electromagnetic interaction and weak interaction. Matter particles have mass. The sphere of space that will become the observable universe is approximately 300 light-seconds (~0.6 AU) in radius at this time. (the time falls between nano and pico seconds)
1 microsec: 1 μs - Quark Epoch ends. (10⁻¹² to 10⁻⁶ seconds): A hot plasma of quarks and gluons fills space.
1 microsec: Hadron Epoch starts. (10⁻⁶ to 1 second): Quarks bind together to make protons and neutrons.
10 microsec: 10^(-5) sec or 10 μs or 0.01 millisec - Quantum chromodynamics phase transition: The quark–gluon plasma of matter particles coalesce into hadrons: mostly protons, neutrons, and pions.
100 microsec: 100 μs -
1 sec: Hadron Epoch ends. (10⁻⁶ to 1 second): Quarks bind together to make protons and neutrons.
1 sec: Lepton Epoch starts. (1 second to 3 minutes): Leptons and anti-leptons dominate the universe.
1 sec: Neutrino decoupling: Neutrinos cease interacting with baryonic matter, and form cosmic neutrino background. The sphere of space that will become the observable universe is approximately 10 light-years in radius at this time.
6 sec: Electron-positron annihilation: As the temperature falls, photons no longer have sufficient energy to produce electron/positron pairs. Electrons and positrons annihilate, leaving photons.
10 sec: Big Bang nucleosynthesis: Protons and neutrons are bound into primordial atomic nuclei: hydrogen and helium-4. Trace amounts of deuterium, helium-3, and lithium-7 also form. At the end of this epoch, the spherical volume of space which will become the observable universe is about 300 light-years in radius, baryonic matter density is on the order of 4 grams per m3 (about 0.3% of sea level air density) - however, most energy at this time is in electromagnetic radiation.
3 min: Lepton Epoch ends. (1 second to 3 minutes): Leptons and anti-leptons dominate the universe.
3 min: Nuclear Epoch starts. (3 minutes to 20 minutes): Protons and neutrons fuse into the first atomic nuclei (mostly helium and hydrogen).
20 min: Nuclear Epoch ends. (3 minutes to 20 minutes): Protons and neutrons fuse into the first atomic nuclei (mostly helium and hydrogen).
1 ka = 1000 years (1 kiloannum or kilo-annum). Used for recent events like the last ice age.
47 ka: Radiation-dominated era ended: Lasted between 10^(-32) sec and 47 ka. During this time, the energy density of massless and near-massless relativistic components such as photons and neutrinos, which move at or close to the speed of light, dominate both matter density and dark energy.
47 ka: Matter-dominated era starts: Lasted between 47 ka and 9.8 Ga. During this time, the energy density of matter dominates both radiation density and dark energy, resulting in a decelerated expansion of the universe.
290 ka: (Atomic) Recombination starts: Electrons and atomic nuclei first become bound to form neutral atoms. Photons are no longer in thermal equilibrium with matter and the universe first becomes transparent. Recombination lasts for about 100 ka, during which the universe is becoming more and more transparent to photons. The photons of the cosmic microwave background radiation originate at this time. The spherical volume of space that will become the observable universe is 42 million light-years in radius at this time. The baryonic matter density at this time is about 500 million hydrogen and helium atoms per cubic metre, approximately a billion times higher than today. This density corresponds to pressure on the order of 10−17 atm. Atomic (Recombination) Epoch (380,000 years): Electrons attach to nuclei to form neutral atoms. Light travels freely for the first time, creating the Cosmic Microwave Background.
370 ka: Recombination ends, Dark Ages starts: The time between recombination and the formation of the first stars. During this time, the only source of photons was hydrogen emitting radio waves at hydrogen line. Freely propagating CMB photons quickly (within about 3 million years) red-shifted to infrared, and the universe was devoid of visible light.
1 Ma = 1 million years (1 megaannum or mega-annum). Used for major eras like when dinosaurs died out.
150 Ma: Dark Ages ends.
150 Ma: Stelliferous Era (between 150 Ma and 100 Ta): The time between the first formation of Population III stars until the cessation of star formation, leaving all stars in the form of degenerate remnants.
200 Ma: Galactic Epoch starts. (200 million to 3 billion years): Gravity pulls gas and atoms together to form the first galaxies.
200 Ma: Reionization starts: Somewhere between 200 Ma and 1 Ga. The most distant astronomical objects observable with telescopes date to this period; as of June 2025, the most remote galaxy observed is MoM-z14, at a redshift of 14.44. The earliest "modern" Population I stars are formed in this period.
280 Ma: Star and galaxy formation and evolution: The earliest known galaxies existed by about 280 Ma. Galaxies coalesce into "proto-clusters" from about 1 Ga (redshift z = 6) and into galaxy clusters beginning at 3 Ga (z = 2.1), and into superclusters from about 5 Ga (z = 1.2). See: list of galaxy groups and clusters, list of superclusters.
400 Ma: Stellar Epoch starts. (400 million years onward): Stars ignite inside galaxies, creating heavy elements and shaping the modern cosmos.
1 Ga = 1 billion years (1 gigaannum or giga-annum). Used for the age of Earth or the universe.
1 Ga: Modern galaxies formed between 1 Ga and 10 Ga.
3 Ga: Galactic Epoch ends. (200 million to 3 billion years): Gravity pulls gas and atoms together to form the first galaxies.
9.8 Ga: Dark-energy-dominated era starts. Matter density falls below dark energy density (vacuum energy), and expansion of space begins to accelerate. This time happens to correspond roughly to the time of the formation of the Solar System and the evolutionary history of life.
13.8 Ga: Present time: Farthest observable photons at this moment are CMB photons. They arrive from a sphere with a radius of 46 billion light-years. The spherical volume inside it is commonly referred to as the observable universe.
13.8 Ga: Dark Energy Epoch starts. (Present day onward): Dark energy overtakes gravity, causing the expansion of the universe to speed up.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUnYkixy3ug)
cosmic ray spallation
low mass stars
explosion of massive stars
explosion of white dwarfs
explosion of neutron stars
nuclear decay
human made
While the sun's surface temperature measures around 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit, its outer atmosphere, known as the solar corona, measures more like 2 million degrees Fahrenheit, about 200 times hotter.
hot dense fog; hot plasma of (mostly protons, neutrons, and electrons) and photons (light). In particular, for roughly the first 380000 years, the photons were constantly interacting with free electrons, meaning that they could not travel long distances. That means that the early Universe was opaque, like being in fog.
The CMB is a remnant leftover from an event that occurred just 400,000 years after the Big Bang called the last scattering. This was the point when the universe ceased to be opaque after electrons bonded to protons forming hydrogen atoms, which stopped electrons from endlessly scattering light and enabling photons to freely travel.
-13771M: After about 380,000 years, the universe had cooled to around 3000 Kelvin (approximately 2700ºC) and at this point, electrons were able to combine with protons to form hydrogen atoms, and the temperature was too low to separate them again. In the absence of free electrons, the photons were able to move unhindered through the Universe: it became transparent.
-13035M: [Research][Space] The most distant astronomical object identified is a galaxy classified as MoM-z14, at a redshift of 14.44. In 2009, a gamma ray burst, GRB 090423, was found to have a redshift of 8.2, which indicates that the collapsing star that caused it exploded when the universe was only 630 million years old. The burst happened approximately 13 billion years ago, so a distance of about 13 billion light-years was widely quoted in the media, or sometimes a more precise figure of 13.035 billion light-years. (JWST)
hydrogen - first atom condensed out of the fog, and since then they have been passed from stars to planets, planet to animals and from prey to predator. vast tendrils of hydrogen crisscross the cosmos. most of the deuterium (hydrogen atom having 1 electron, 1 proton and 1 neutron) formed during this period, that later carried by space rocks to planets and forming the heavy water. (first di-atomic element or homonuclear molecule)
[The 7 diatomic elements are hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I)]
dust and gas
and as they would draw together due to gravity, the first was born, the moment light came out causing hi temp and pressures spots, causing hydrogen atoms to fuse together to form helium and the chain reaction of heavier elements started. 2 atoms of hydrogen fused together to form helium, the process is called as Big-bang nucleosynthesis. (first single atom highly stable element - monatomic)
[at sufficiently high temperature or very low pressure, all chemical elements become gas (and likely monatomic). The thermodynamic behavior of a monatomic gas is much simpler when compared to polyatomic gases because it is free of any rotational or vibrational energy.]
This started a chain reaction of formation of elements, initially lighter elements formed and as the universe expanded stars formed and hence lead to formation of heavier elements thru stellar nucleosynthesis.
3 atoms of helium fused together to form carbon, the element on which all life is based.
carbon and helium made oxygen and nitrogen, the air we breathe and the elements plants need for their growth [helium fusion also causes neon formation]
oxygen atoms combined with helium, made phosphorus; helium, carbon and oxygen nuclei fused together to form silicon.
helium and silicone fused together to form calcium.
formation of iron, unlike other reaction, causes the heat to be consumed rather produced and with no heat source to hold the star up, it starts to ran out of their nuclear fuel, and then followed by a cataclysmic explosion called a supernova, which distributes these elements across the interstellar space as dust, which then becomes part of the raw materials for the formation of new stars, planets and even life. magnetite (present thru special cells in green sea turtles, tiger sharks and other animals) allowing them to navigate using planet's magnetic field and the magnetic footprint in their brain.
Ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, and diamagnetic materials differ in how strongly they interact with magnetic fields. Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted to magnets and can retain magnetism, while paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted. Diamagnetic materials, on the other hand, are weakly repelled by magnets. The magnetism in ferrimagnetic materials is weaker than in ferromagnetic materials because of the opposing spin alignment. Magnetite (Fe3O4) and ferrites are examples of ferrimagnetic materials. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are classic examples of ferromagnetic materials.
non-metals: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus
noble gas: helium
metalloid: silicon
alkaline: calcium
noble gas: helium
metalloid: silicon
alkaline: calcium
compound: iron oxide - Magnetite (Fe₃O₄)
[Magnetite is a naturally occurring iron oxide mineral with the chemical formula Fe₃O₄. It's a ferrimagnetic material, meaning it's attracted to magnets and can be magnetized itself, making it a natural magnet, also known as lodestone. It's an important iron ore used in steel production and has various other applications due to its magnetic properties.]
Decreasing order of electronegativity of elements: O > N > S > P > Si > C > Al > Mg > B > Be > H > Ca > Fe > Na > Li > He
It took nearly 400,000 years, after the Big Bang, to first form neutral atoms. The imprints from that early time can now be seen everywhere.
Many fascinating, important cosmic events happened shortly after the Big Bang:
- electroweak symmetry breaking,
- the formation of protons and neutrons,
- Big Bang nucleosynthesis, and
- the formation of neutral atoms.
Of course, most of the “important” stuff that happens is in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, but neutral atoms won’t form for another ~380,000 years. In between, there are no directly observable signatures at all, and yet the physics of what happens during that “obscure” time is responsible for shaping the Universe today.
The planets in our solar system, listed from largest to smallest by diameter, are: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury, with the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) being vastly bigger than the inner rocky planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars). Jupiter is the largest, while Mercury is the smallest.
All Planets in our Solar system rotate Counter-Clockwise (CCW) except planet Venus & planet Uranus , they rotate Clockwise (CW).
Jupiter's composition is mainly hydrogen and helium, with a dense gaseous-liquid surface (instead hard crust), beyond 20,000km it has liquid metallic hydrogen at a pressure of 3 million bars. Iron-nickel alloy, rock, etc., at a temperature estimated to exceed 20000*C comprising the planet’s core. the ice-planetesimals brought neon into Jupiter from the outer solar system. Jupiter is so massive that over 1,300 Earths could fit inside it, making it the dominant planet by size in our solar system.
Saturn is mainly composed of lo-density hydrogen and helium. The atmosphere comprises, in descending order of altitude, a layer of ammonia, a layer of ammonium hydrogen sulfide, and a layer of ice. The planet's core is estimated to be composed of rock and ice.
Uranus is gaseous in composition, mainly comprising hydrogen and helium. The planet atmosphere is mostly hydrogen but also includes helium and methane. The planet core is estimated to be rock and ice encompassed by an outer layer of ice comprised of water, ammonium, and methane.
The atmosphere of Neptune consists of mainly hydrogen, methane and helium. Below it is a liquid hydrogen layer including helium and methane. The lower layer is made up of the liquid hydrogen compounds oxygen and nitrogen. It is believed that the planet core comprises rock and ice. (2006). Neptune also has no solid surface, but hosts a mixture of water and different kinds of ice over a solid core. In the atmosphere, you would encounter hydrogen, helium, and frozen methane clouds filling the skies that would block the dim rays of the distant Sun (roughly 30 times farther away from the Sun than Earth is). Methane absorbs red light, giving Uranus and Neptune their blue-green colors.
Earth's atmosphere is primarily composed of Nitrogen (around 78%) and Oxygen (about 21%), with the remaining 1% consisting of Argon (0.93%), Carbon Dioxide (approx. 0.04%), and trace amounts of Neon, Helium, Methane, and Hydrogen, plus variable water vapor. These gases form layers, with most mass and weather occurring in the lowest layer, the troposphere. Earth's composition is layered: a metallic core (iron-nickel), a silicate mantle (magnesium, silicon, iron), and a rocky crust (oxygen, silicon, aluminum), with the atmosphere (nitrogen, oxygen) and hydrosphere (water) also significant components, all primarily elements like iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and nickel.
Venus is a rocky planet with an iron core, similar to Earth, but its defining feature is a crushingly dense atmosphere composed almost entirely of carbon dioxide (96.5%), with about 3.5% nitrogen and traces of sulfur dioxide, argon, water vapor, and other gases, topped by thick sulfuric acid clouds. There is carbon monoxide, water vapour and atomic oxygen as well. Hydrogen is in relatively short supply in the Venusian atmosphere.
Mars has a thin atmosphere, so the sky there has a hazy, reddish look from the surface. Dust in the sky would block some of the sunlight, with winds whipping up massive dust storms that can take months to settle to the surface again.
On Mercury, there is no atmosphere to impair the Sun´s rays, only a thin layer called an exosphere, so on the surface you would experience powerful Sun, open skies and intense heat with temperatures up to 430 degrees celsius (800 Fahrenheit). Atmosphere (Exosphere): A very thin layer of atoms blasted from the surface, including oxygen, sodium, hydrogen, helium, and potassium. The composition of Mercury, the planet, is primarily metallic (about 70%) and silicate (30%), featuring a massive iron core that makes it the most iron-rich planet, with a surface rich in sulfur, magnesium, and carbon, but relatively low in aluminum and calcium compared to other terrestrial planets (Earth and Moon), alongside trace amounts of elements like potassium, sodium, oxygen, titanium (Ti), chromium (Cr), and manganese (Mn). Mercury is only slightly larger than Earth's Moon. It's the fastest planet, zipping around the Sun every 88 Earth days (or ~3 Earh months).
Titan (Saturn's Moon): The only known world besides Earth with a stable, liquid-based surface cycle, featuring methane/ethane rain, lakes, and rivers. It is often described as having an insulating crust of methane-rich material.
our solar system formed from nebula, the dusty remains of an exploded star, as the stardust collided and collapsed due to immense gravity it formed our sun. the gravity of young sun made rest of the dust spin around it in a flat plate-like cloud (proto-planetary disk) . the hot and intense solar and magnetic winds blasted light gases away from the sun, leaving mostly heavy elements like iron and silica. oxygen binds so readily to silica and iron that it made most common element on earth.
Sun is a boiling, shifting sea of barely restrained plasma. inspite of the intense gravitational force holding it all together, the nuclear reactions taking place in it's core are as hot as 15 million*C in it's center that plasma bubbles and bursts on its surface, erupting into solar flares that blaze in all directions.
Sun-spots are the dark patches of the Sun's surface that are filled with intense magnetic fields and can be between 1600 to 160000 km across, they form, drift and vanish.
Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) explodes out of sun's corona (the atmospheric zone above the Sun that is strangely 200 times hotter than it's surface) The activity waxes (solar maximum) and wanes (solar minimum) each 11 years due and leads to swapping of magnetic poles. You are 50 times more likely to see a solar flare during solar max and large CMEs from happening once every few days to multiple times in a single day. The Schwabe cycle. The Hale cycle is one half of the Schwabe cycle
Jupiter's moon Europa is a quarter of the Earth's size but has twice as much water as Earth do, due the fact that it is distant from the hot Sun. Mercury and Venus were too close to the Sun, while the water on Mars got vapored away due to intense solar winds.
The temperature of our solar system varies greatly, ranging from the scorching 464°C (737 kelvin) on Venus to the frigid -200°C (73.15 kelvin) on Neptune. The inner planets like Mercury, Venus, and Earth experience higher temperatures due to their proximity to the sun, while the outer gas giants and dwarf planets are much colder.
Venus: Averages 464°C, making it the hottest planet due to its thick, toxic atmosphere that traps heat.
Mercury: Can reach 167°C during the day but drops drastically at night due to the lack of an atmosphere.
Earth: Average surface temperature is 15°C (288 kelvin), a comfortable range for life as we know it.
Mars: Average temperature is -65°C (208 kelvin), a cold, desert-like planet.
Jupiter: -110°C (163 kelvin), a gas giant with no solid surface.
Saturn: -140°C, known for its beautiful rings, but they don't significantly warm the planet.
Uranus: -195°C, an icy planet with a unique axial tilt.
Neptune: -200°C, the coldest planet in the solar system.
Pluto: -225°C, a dwarf planet and one of the coldest objects in our solar system.
-8460M:[Space][Research] Many ancient cultures such as Babylonian astronomers and Indian astronomy studied the pattern of the Seven Sacred Luminaires/Classical Planets against the background of stars, with their interest being to relate celestial movement to human events (astrology), and the goal being to predict events by recording events against a t1854ime measure and then look for recurrent patterns. The debate between the universe having either a beginning or eternal cycles can be traced to ancient Babylonia. Hindu cosmology posits that time is infinite with a cyclic universe, where the current universe was preceded and will be followed by an infinite number of universes. Time scales mentioned in Hindu cosmology correspond to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long.
It is cold in some places some of the time. The vacuum of space is actually at an average of approximately -455° Fahrenheit (2.6 kelvin). But here's the thing to remember: That number is an average across all of space in the unfathomable enormity of the universe, the vast majority of which is dark and empty.
-7000M:In January 2020, cosmochemists reported that the oldest material found on Earth to date are the silicon carbide particles from the Murchison meteorite, which have been determined to be 7 billion years old, about 2.5 billion years older than the 4.54-billion-year age of the Earth and the Solar System. The published study noted that "dust lifetime estimates mainly rely on sophisticated theoretical models. These models, however, focus on the more common small dust grains and are based on assumptions with large uncertainties."
-5000M: Sun's beginning (after another 5 billion it'll run out of fuel)
-4900M:[India] Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, India detected the signal from a "star-forming galaxy" titled SDSSJ0826+5630, which was emitted when the 13.8 billion-year-old Milky Way – the galaxy where Earth resides – was just 4.9 billion years old. The signal was detected by a unique wavelength known as a "21-centimeter line" or the "hydrogen line," which is reportedly emitted by neutral hydrogen atoms.
Chronostratigraphic unit (strata): Eonothem > Erathem > System> Series > Sub-series > Stage
Geochronologic unit (time): Eon > Era > Period > Epoch > Age > Chron
-- Hadean Eon (-4600M to -4000M) starts --
Began 4.6 billion years ago when Earth first formed; the planet was very hot and molten.
The Precambrian is the earliest span of Earth's geologic history, beginning with the planet's formation about 4.6 billion years ago and ending 541 million years ago at the start of the Cambrian Period. It covers nearly 88% of Earth's history and is divided into three eons: the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic.
-4600M: The Hadean (the cosmic period, the period of exploding old and massive stars, supernovas; forming large cloud of gas and dust; meteorites, asteroids, and comets; generation of heavier elements within stars due to nuclear fusion of H) . Hadean time is not a geological period as such. No rocks on the Earth are this old - except for meteorites. During Hadean time, the Solar System was forming, probably within a large cloud of gas and dust around the sun, called an accretion disc. Temp up to 2000*C.
-4600M: Earth's atmosphere in the early Hadean was full of CO2 and was as thick as 215 bars of pressure (i.e. 215 times of now). Earth's surface was 230*C, but due to hi-pressure water didn't boil.
-4567.46M: Hadean eon started.
-4565M: Some types of meteorite are older than the Earth, having formed in the early Solar System, before the planet formation process was completed. The meteorite Northwest Africa 11119 (NWA 11119) has been dated to 4.5648 ± 0.0003 billion years. Some solid inclusions within meteorites are older than the surrounding rock. NWA 11119 substantially widens the range of volcanic rock compositions produced within the first 2.5–3.5 million years of Solar System history, and provides direct evidence that chemically evolved crustal rocks were forming on planetesimals prior to the assembly of the terrestrial planets. Northwest Africa (NWA) 11119, a stone meteorite found in December 2016 in Mauritania, is the world's oldest igneous meteorite, according to new research.
-4500M: The oldest meteorites and lunar rocks are about 4.5 billion years old, but the oldest Earth rocks currently known are 3.8 billion years old. When proton-rich solar winds hit's the Earth's atmosphere they steal some electrons from the dust and hence leading to the creation of lighter hydrogen (1 electron and 1 proton) which made up the fresh water on Earth. Slam this H2 into a rock with some O2 in it and you've the light water. A water that came from meteorites and sun-burnt dust.
During the Hadean, we accumulated light water and stored it in the rocks that became Earth's mantle
-4500M: Young Jupiter was slowly getting pulled-in towards the Sun by the forces of inner turbulent solar system, a flight path that brought it into a collision course with the asteroid belt. As it thundered thru the asteroid it's massive gravitational force flung rocks in every direction and yet from all this chaos and destruction, came the ultimate cosmic gift. Icy water rich rocks were hurled towards the Earth bringing the promise of life one step closer.
-4500M: Water in the Solar System as the young Jupiter collided with the asteroid belt.
-4567M: Earth forms as Solar System began to form.
-4533M: Moon Forms. (Giant Impact Hypothesis/Big Splash/Theia Impact in the Hadean eon), that give earth it's spin and hence seasons on Earth. Young Earth had faster spin.
-4540M: Earliest Earth.
-4400M: Earliest water, As the Earth's spin slowed with time, the days became longer, allowing the sunlight to penetrate the ocean.
-4567M: Earth forms as Solar System began to form.
-4533M: Moon Forms. (Giant Impact Hypothesis/Big Splash/Theia Impact in the Hadean eon), that give earth it's spin and hence seasons on Earth. Young Earth had faster spin.
-4540M: Earliest Earth.
-4400M: Earliest water, As the Earth's spin slowed with time, the days became longer, allowing the sunlight to penetrate the ocean.
-4400M: Rocks in the Jack Hills area are the oldest fragments of continental crust ever found, dating back 4.4 billion years. The oldest landmass on Earth is found in Western Australia's Pilbara region. Specifically, rocks in the Jack Hills area have been dated to 4.4 billion years old, making them the oldest known continental crust. While the Pilbara region is considered the oldest crust, the Singhbhum region in India is identified as the location of Earth's first landmass to emerge above the ocean, dating back 3.1 billion years.
-4375M: Earth cooled enough to put a cap on the magma. The oldest traces of rocks found on Earth's surface indicating the cooling of hot magma on Earth's surface leading to the formation solid rocky-lid on the surface. Cathodoluminescence image of a 400-μm Jack Hills zircon. (Image credit: John Valley, University of Wisconsin). By zapping single atoms of lead in a tiny zircon crystal from Australia, researchers have confirmed the crystal is the oldest rock fragment ever found on Earth — 4.375 billion years old, plus or minus 6 million years.
Hadean rocks are very rare, largely consisting of granular zircons from one locality (Jack Hills) in Western Australia. Backscatter electron micrograph of detrital zircons from the Hadean (4.404 ± 0.008 Ga) metasediments of the Jack Hills, Narryer Gneiss Terrane, Western Australia.
It appears that plate tectonics and the growth of continents may have started in the Hadean.
Earth in the early Hadean had a very thick carbon dioxide- and methane-rich atmosphere, but eventually oceans made of liquid water formed.
-4280M:The history of living matter traces the journey from the earliest emergence of life on Earth to the diverse forms we see today. Evidence suggests life arose relatively soon after Earth formed, potentially within the first billion years. Fossilized microorganisms, carbon signatures, and other indicators point to life's existence as far back as 4.28 billion years ago, though the precise origins are still under investigation.
The early days on Earth looked very different from today—it was extremely hot, volcanically active, and bathed in brutal UV radiation. Since we don’t have fossils from this time, scientists can look at life forms that still exist today in similar conditions. From these, they have suggested possibilities where life first began.
-4200:LUCA, or the Last Universal Common Ancestor, is the theoretical most recent organism from which all current life on Earth is descended. It's not the first life form, but the point at which all known life forms diverged. LUCA is estimated to have lived around 4.2 billion years ago, relatively soon after the Earth formed. LUCA is believed to have been a prokaryotic cell, meaning it lacked a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. LUCA was not a simple cell; it likely possessed complex features like an early immune system and mechanisms for energy production. LUCA sits at the base of the tree of life, representing the point where the prokaryotic domains (Bacteria and Archaea) diverged.
Some microorganisms thrive in the scalding, highly acidic hot springs environments like those found today in Iceland, Norway and Yellowstone National Park. The same goes for deep-sea hydrothermal vents. These chimney-like vents form where seawater comes into contact with magma on the ocean floor, resulting in streams of superheated plumes. The microorganisms that live near such plumes have led some scientists to suggest them as the birthplaces of Earth’s first life forms.
Sunlight provides the energy source at the surface, which drives photosynthesis. On the ocean floor, geothermal energy supplies the chemical nutrients that organisms need to live.
-4100M: Earliest life. Zircon (Oldest known mineral) grains in Western Australia may have a biogenic origin.
In biology, abiogenesis (from a- 'not' + Greek bios 'life' + genesis 'origin') or the origin of life is the natural process by which life has arisen from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. The prevailing scientific hypothesis is that the transition from non-living to living entities on Earth was not a single event, but a process of increasing complexity involving the formation of a habitable planet, the prebiotic synthesis of organic molecules, molecular self-replication, self-assembly, autocatalysis, and the emergence of cell membranes.
Viruses are likely very old and originated from ancient RNA cells that predated LUCA.
Three hypotheses have been proposed to explain the emergence of viruses: (i) they are relics of pre-cellular life forms; (ii) they are derived by reduction from unicellular organisms (via parasitic-driven evolution); (iii) they originated from fragments of genetic material that escaped from the control of the cell and became parasitic (Luria and Darnell, 1967, Bandea, 1983, Forterre, 2003, Hendrix et al., 2000 and references herein).
A capsid is the protein shell of a virus that encases and protects its genetic material (DNA or RNA). It's essentially a protective container for the virus's genome, crucial for its survival and ability to infect host cells. Capsids are composed of smaller protein subunits called capsomeres. (geometry)
A protomer is the basic, repeating structural unit of an oligomeric protein complex. It's the smallest unit that, when repeated, forms the larger, functional protein. Essentially, it's a building block for these larger protein structures. (geometry)
Oceans cover ~70% of Earth’s surface, so that a meteor hitting Earth would likely hit in an ocean. Prokaryotic cells can be highly abundant in sea water, up to 106 bacteria per ml; remarkably, they are commonly outnumbered by their viruses (“bacteriophage” or “phage”), which can reach 107 per ml. Viruses and cells can settle to the ocean floor, so that beneath the oceans, a deep microbial biosphere extends hundreds to thousands of meters down in marine sediments. Early studies have also documented the presence of an enormous virosphere. Prokaryotic cells predominate in the deep marine sediments, and are thought to number fully 3 × 1029 cells globally, accounting for around half of all the prokaryotic cells in the ocean. Viruses in marine sediments may number up to 1.8 × 1010 viruses per cubic centimeter, potentially outnumbering their hosts.
Sequences from bacterial viruses have been reported in samples taken from a 2.5-km deep drill hole in Finland [2014], a 2.5-km deep shale fracture system in the Appalachian basin [2016] and a 3-km deep groundwater sample in South Africa [2015]. In deep marine sediments, cells were fewer, but viral particle counts were relatively higher. This is potentially consistent with superior preservation of viruses at greater depths over long time periods. A possible mechanism for greater viral preservation is adherence to clays, which have higher surface charges and smaller pore spaces in deep sediments than in surface layers, potentially binding viruses and shielding them from degradation [2019,2009]. Metagenomic studies of glacial ice [2021] and many terrestrial surface environments have also yielded rich viral populations [2017, 2007].
Evaluating the plausibility of virolithopanspermia turns in part on understanding how well viruses will survive in harsh environments. Many types of viruses are quite labile, and are expected to have short half-lives under unfavorable circumstances. Membrane enclosed viruses are inactivated rapidly under conditions damaging to membrane integrity [2019]. At the other extreme, some nonenveloped viruses have quite tough capsids—for example, phage T1 particles can survive drying [2011], and the phage HK97 capsid is actually covalently crosslinked to form tough molecular chain mail [1998]. Viruses with particularly stable particles are top candidates for participating in virolithopanspermia.
[hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus]
Hydrogen has 1 electron and needs 1 more to complete its valence shell (duet rule). Therefore, it lacks 0 electrons in its elemental form.
Oxygen has 6 valence electrons and needs 2 more to complete its octet. It lacks 2 electrons.
Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons and needs 3 more to complete its octet. It lacks 3 electrons.
Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons and needs 3 more to complete its octet. It lacks 3 electrons.
Carbon has 4 valence electrons and needs 4 more to complete its octet. It lacks 4 electrons.
Hydrogen (H): Electronic configuration: 1s¹, Atomic mass: approximately 1.008 amu.
Carbon (C): Electronic configuration: 1s²2s²2p², Atomic mass: approximately 12.011 amu.
Nitrogen (N): Electronic configuration: 1s²2s²2p³, Atomic mass: approximately 14.007 amu.
Oxygen (O): Electronic configuration: 1s²2s²2p⁴, Atomic mass: approximately 15.999 amu.
Phosphorus (P): Electronic configuration: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p³, Atomic mass: approximately 30.974 amu.
[The electron configuration 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶4s²3d¹⁰4p⁶ represents the element Krypton (Kr). It has an atomic number of 36, meaning it has 36 protons and, in its neutral state, 36 electrons. This configuration indicates a filled outermost shell (4s²4p⁶), which is characteristic of a noble gas. Therefore, this electron configuration also describes a stable, neutral krypton atom.]
Hydrogen is a highly reactive gas, carbon exhibits versatile bonding, oxygen is a strong oxidizer, nitrogen is relatively unreactive due to its triple bond, and phosphorus exists in multiple allotropic forms with diverse reactivity.
While hydrogen can form both ionic and covalent bonds, it typically exhibits a slight positive charge when bonded to more electronegative elements like oxygen, nitrogen, or halogens.
Oxygen is the most electronegative, followed by nitrogen, then carbon, and lastly, phosphorus and hydrogen are the least electronegative. Hydrogen is considered slightly electropositive. Stronger electronegativity differences lead to more polar bonds and potentially stronger interactions like hydrogen bonds (e.g., between hydrogen and oxygen).
Here's a breakdown of their key chemical properties:
1. Hydrogen (H):
Reactivity: Highly reactive, especially with oxygen and halogens.
Bonding: Forms covalent bonds, often acting as a reducing agent.
Oxidation State: Typically +1 or -1 in compounds.
Example: Reacts with oxygen to form water (H₂O).
2. Carbon (C):
Bonding: Forms strong covalent bonds, enabling the existence of a vast array of organic compounds.
Valency: Tetravalent (can form four bonds).
Oxidation State: Can exhibit +4, -4, or intermediate oxidation states.
Example: Forms the backbone of all organic molecules.
3. Oxygen (O):
Reactivity: Very reactive, readily forms oxides with most elements.
Oxidizing Agent: A strong oxidizing agent, essential for combustion and respiration.
Bonding: Forms double bonds with itself (O₂) and single bonds with other elements.
Example: Reacts with hydrogen to form water (H₂O).
4. Nitrogen (N):
Reactivity: Relatively unreactive due to the strong triple bond in N₂.
Bonding: Forms triple bonds (N≡N) in its diatomic form, making it stable.
Oxidation State: Can exhibit various oxidation states in compounds.
Example: Important component of amino acids and nucleic acids.
5. Phosphorus (P):
Reactivity: More reactive than nitrogen, especially in its white allotropic form.
Bonding: Forms single bonds, often as part of larger molecules.
Allotropes: Exists in various allotropic forms (white, red, black) with different properties.
Example: Essential component of DNA and cell membranes.
Macromolecules, also known as polymers, are large molecules made up of repeating subunits called monomers. Examples of macromolecules include carbohydrates (like starch and cellulose), lipids (fats, oils, and waxes), proteins, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Synthetic polymers like plastics (e.g., polyethylene) and nylon are also macromolecules.
[stellar nucleosynthesis -> elements -> molecules -> compounds (such as carbs, phosphates, amines, nucleotides) -> genes (specific sequences of the nucleotides within the DNA/RNA) -> macromolecules (polymers, such as proteins, RNA, DNA) -> viruses -> chromosome (telomere) -> nucleus -> cell -> microorganisms ]
stellar nucleosynthesis -> elements (carbon) -> biomolecules (organic molecules, such as hydrocarbons, alcohols, amino acids, nucleotide) -> macromolecules / macronutrients (nucleic acids, fatty acids, proteins, carbs) ->
Amino acids are the monomers of proteins, while nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
* proteins are large, complex (organic) molecules made up of amino acids -> Structural Support, Enzymes, Hormones, Antibodies and Transport
* Carbohydrates (carbs) are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. such as Glycerin
* long chain of hydrocarbons - fatty acids - Lipids (fat) are a diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They encompass a wide range of molecules, including fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids, and play crucial roles in various biological processes. Fats are a type of nutrient found in food, belonging to the broader category of lipids.
* macronutrient -> Protein, carbohydrates, and fat are the three macronutrients that provide the body with energy and support various bodily functions. They are essential for growth, repair, and overall health
* microorganisms
[macronutrients - proteins, fat and carbs]
Later, the hydrogen, and carbon will form hydrocarbons (which will in turn produce terpenes, fatty acids, and waxes; carotenes (pigments) in carrots and green leaves are hydrocarbons)
the hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen will form sugar (carbohydrates such as glycerin) and alcohols (such as glycerol),
the hydrocarbons and glycerol (an alcohol) forms triglycerides (fat), which in turn forms phosphatides using phosphorus and nitrogen.
the oxygen and phosphorus will form phosphates, (such as kinases...serine/threonine) and
the oxygen and phosphorus will form phosphates, (such as kinases...serine/threonine) and
the hydrogen and nitrogen will form ammonia (and amines). amines will react with sugar to form glycosylamine (example nucleosides such as adenosine). amines when reacted with phosphates form nucleotides which further form polymeric macromolecules, called Nucleic acids (e.g RNA, DNA).
Hydrocarbons are also present in the cuticles of plant leaves and stems, providing a protective barrier.
Conifers produce significant amounts of terpenes.
Rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) produce large quantities of a hydrocarbon called polyisoprene, a key component of natural rubber.
Insects use hydrocarbons for waterproofing and communication (through pheromones). Certain insects, like scarab beetles, have specific hydrocarbon structures in their exoskeletons.
the carbohydrates, nitrogen and magnesium will form chlorophyll.
Magnesium is metal in group IIA of the periodic table with the atomic number 12, an atomic weight of 24.312, a density of 1.74 Mg/m3, and a melting temperature of 650*C. Electron configuration: [Ne] 3s². Discovery: Joseph Black (1755). Heat of fusion: 8.48 kJ/mol.
The molecular formula for chlorophyll is C55H72MgN4O5. Chlorophyll, the pigment responsible for the green color in plants, is composed of a porphyrin ring with a magnesium ion at its center, and a phytol tail. The porphyrin ring consists of four pyrrole molecules, and the phytol tail is a long hydrocarbon chain that is hydrophobic.
A nucleotide consists of a sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil).
Nucleotides are composed of three key chemical units: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. These components are covalently linked, forming the building blocks of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA.
Nitrogenous Base: This can be one of several types: Purines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) in DNA, and Uracil (U) in RNA.
A five-carbon sugar molecule. DNA contains deoxyribose, while RNA contains ribose.
A phosphate group (PO4^3-) is linked to the sugar molecule. Nucleotides can have one, two, or three phosphate groups, forming nucleoside monophosphates, diphosphates, or triphosphates, respectively.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP)
Nicotinamide - Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen (C6H6N2O)
Adenine - Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen (C5H5N5)
Nucleotides - Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Phosphorus (DNA / RNA)
Phosphate - Oxygen and Phosphorus
Nicotinamide is a water-soluble form of vitamin B3 or niacin. It is made in the body by eating niacin-rich foods such as fish, poultry, nuts, legumes, eggs, and cereal grains. Nicotinamide supplements are used to treat skin conditions and niacin deficiencies.
A gene is made up of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). Specifically, genes are segments of DNA that contain the instructions for building proteins or functional RNA molecules. These DNA segments are arranged on chromosomes, which are structures within the cell nucleus.
A significant portion of the human genome consists of Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs), which are remnants of retroviruses that infected our ancestors. Examples include the syncytin genes, which are derived from retroviruses and are essential for proper placental formation in mammals.
Nucleotides - The building blocks of DNA, including adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria. A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea.
Humans have approximately 30,000 genes. The roundworm has 19,098 genes. The fruit fly has 13,602 genes. Yeast has 6,034 genes. The microbe responsible for tuberculosis has approximately 4,000 genes. The porcine circovirus has only two genes, while the pandoravirus salinus can have up to 2,541 genes. Viral remnants make up 8 percent of the human genome, and a new study finds that these sequences are still active in healthy people. Genome sequences show that parasitic bacteria have 500–1200 genes, free-living bacteria have 1500–7500 genes, and archaea have 1500–2700 genes.
The oldest rock formation on Earth may be the Acasta Gneiss in the Canadian Shield in the Northwest Territories, Canada. It is composed of the Archaean igneous and gneissic cores of ancient mountain chains that have been exposed by glacial action.
-4100M: Material may be ejected from Earth into space during impacts of large meteors. Such impacts were most common early during Earth’s history in the “period of heavy bombardment”, estimated to be from 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago [2013]. The timing of the origin of cellular life is uncertain, but estimated to be from 3.5 to 4.3 billion years ago [19,20], potentially overlapping the period of heavy bombardment.
(18.Worth RJ, Sigurdsson S, House CH. Seeding life on the moons of the outer planets via lithopanspermia. Astrobiology. 2013;13(12):1155–65. doi: 10.1089/ast.2013.1028 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar][Ref list];
19.Dodd MS, Papineau D, Grenne T, Slack JF, Rittner M, Pirajno F, et al. Evidence for early life in Earth’s oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates. Nature. 2017;543(7643):60–4. doi: 10.1038/nature21377 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar][Ref list];
20.Bell EA, Boehnke P, Harrison TM, Mao WL. Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112(47):14518–21. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1517557112 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar][Ref list])
19.Dodd MS, Papineau D, Grenne T, Slack JF, Rittner M, Pirajno F, et al. Evidence for early life in Earth’s oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates. Nature. 2017;543(7643):60–4. doi: 10.1038/nature21377 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar][Ref list];
20.Bell EA, Boehnke P, Harrison TM, Mao WL. Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112(47):14518–21. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1517557112 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar][Ref list])
-- Hadean Eon (-4600M to -4000M) ends --
-- Archean Eon (-4000M to -2500M) starts --
Began 4 billion years ago; simple, single-celled life first appeared in the oceans.
The Archean Eon is the second geologic eon of Earth, lasting from 4.031 to 2.5 billion years ago, defined by the formation of the first solid crust, the accumulation of early oceans, and the origin of life.
-- Archean Eon: Eoarchean Era (-4031M to -3600M) starts --
4.031 to 3.6 billion years ago; cooling surface and first stable crust fragments.
-4000M: The Archean Eon (also spelled Archaean or Archæan), in older sources sometimes called the Archaeozoic, is the second of the four geologic eons of Earth's history, preceded by the Hadean eon and followed by the Proterozoic. The Archean represents the time period from 4,000 to 2,500 Ma (millions of years ago). The Late Heavy Bombardment is hypothesized to overlap with the beginning of the Archean. The Huronian glaciation occurred at the end of the eon.
-4000M: or 4BYO - The Archean Eon, which lasted from 4.0–2.5 billion years ago, is named after the Greek word for beginning. This eon represents the beginning of the rock record. Although there is current evidence that rocks and minerals existed during the Hadean Eon, the Archean has a much more robust rock and fossil record.
A virus is not a living organism and can only grow and reproduce in the cells of a host. Viruses are tinier: the largest of them are smaller than the smallest bacteria. They aren't even a full cell (lacks cell wall). They are simply genetic material (DNA or RNA) packaged inside of a protein coating.
-4000M: NASA scientists have discovered massive fragments of ancient planetary collisions buried deep in Mars' mantle. The findings reveal preserved scars from violent impacts over four billion years ago. (30-Aug-2025)
--------------------------------------------------- Life @ Earth -------------------------------------------------------
-3900M: Single-celled life or Unicellular life or Single-celled organisms, such as bacterium (plural: bacteria or Eubacteria) and archaea (Archaebacteria). Studies on, among others, single-cell organisms indicate that the combined chemical sense of taste and smell is possibly the oldest of the senses and the most universally employed (Hoover, 2010; Kovács, 2004). Humans and other animals rely strongly on olfaction to locate and identify food sources. The sense of taste – or let's say taste and smell, the two big components of flavor – is impossibly ancient, dating back more than a billion years to the earliest cells, which needed to sense chemicals in the seawater around them – stuff to avoid, or stuff that was beneficial. So over time natural selection crafted receptor proteins. These are coiled molecules in cell walls that respond to specific kinds of chemical signatures (and also to light, vibration and other stimuli).
Archaebacteria utilize NADPH in various metabolic reactions, similar to bacteria and eukaryotes. NADPH, a key electron donor, is essential for numerous anabolic reactions, including the biosynthesis of cell components and various biotechnological products. Archaea, like other organisms, rely on NADPH for reducing power in processes like carbon dioxide fixation during photosynthesis and other biosynthetic pathways.
Many archaea, like bacteria and eukaryotes, use NADPH in pathways such as the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (oxPPP) and the Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway, and the isocitrate dehydrogenase step of the TCA cycle.
eIF2α (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 subunit alpha) is a key regulatory protein involved in the initiation of protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. It plays a crucial role in responding to cellular stress by regulating translation, often through phosphorylation.
-3800M: LHB meteorites. The Late Heavy Bombardment ends. About 4 to 3.8 billion years ago a period of intense comet and asteroid bombardment is thought to have peppered all the planets including the Earth. Many of the numerous craters found on the Moon and other bodies in the Solar System record this event.
-3700M: Sometime during the first 800 million or so years of the Hadean history, the surface of the Earth changed from liquid to solid. Once solid rock formed on the Earth, its geological history began. This most likely happened prior to 3.8 billion years, but hard evidence for this is lacking. Erosion and plate tectonics has probably destroyed all of the solid rocks that were older than 3.8 billion years. The beginning of the rock record that is currently present on the Earth is the inception of a time known as the Archaean.
-3700M: Earlier possible evidence of life include graphite, which may have a biogenic origin, in a metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland. Minions
-3700M: Earlier possible evidence of life include graphite, which may have a biogenic origin, in a metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland. Minions
-- Archean Eon: Paleoarchean Era (-3600M to -3200M) starts --
3.6 to 3.2 billion years ago; emergence of tiny island landmasses and earliest single-celled life.
-3600M:
-3500M:[Space][Mars] The same forces that delivered water to Earth also gave it to Mars. With an atmosphere in place, clouds formed, rain fell, rivers flowed, And an ocean surged across its surface. It was a world of possibilities, it had a potential for life, but it didn't last due to raging nuclear inferno, Sun. Sun unleashes torrents of hi-energy particles so powerful and deadly, this solar wind streaming thru space at 400 km/s and ripped thru the Martian atmosphere tearing water molecules apart. Over millions of years Martian atmosphere was stripped away by solar winds. Mars' water was lost to space.
[pro-karyotes (bacteria, archaea, algae/cyanobacteria) -> eu-karyotes (plants, animals, fungi, protists/protozoa) -> mitochondria -> multicellular -> macroscopic multicellular -> Invertebrates -> Vertebrate]
[water life -> land life]
-3500M: Prokaryotic cells, a single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotes appear. Bacteria and archaeobacteria split. The last universal ancestor (LUCA) lives during this time. Prokaryotic (Pro=before; karyote=nute,kernel). From Ancient Greek πρό (pró, “early”) + κάρυον (káruon, “nucleus”, literally “kernel”) + -ota.
macromolecules starts breathing thru ATP. 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidized glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).
macromolecules starts breathing thru ATP. 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidized glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).
-3500M: Barberton Mountains Located in South Africa – 3.5 billion years Old. The Barberton Mountains, also known as Makhonjwa Mountains are widely acknowledged as the oldest mountain range on Earth, with an estimated age of 3.5 billion years.
The oldest mountains on Earth are the Barberton Mountains (also known as the Makhonjwa Mountains) in South Africa, dating back approximately 3.5 billion years. These ancient formations are part of the Barberton Greenstone Belt and are renowned for their well-preserved volcanic and sedimentary rock layers. Situated in South Africa, with some parts extending into Eswatini (formerly Swaziland). The rocks within the Barberton Greenstone Belt are around 3.5 billion years old, making them some of the oldest on Earth.
-3500M:What becomes of the material blasted off Earth? Quantitative models suggest that fragments expelled from Earth experience a variety of fates. Some fall back on Earth, and some fall into the Sun. Less commonly, material reaches the other planets in our solar system, and on rare occasions even progresses out of the solar system [3,18]. Estimates suggest that over the last 3.5 billion years, approximately 3 × 108 fragments have been ejected from Earth that have the potential to transfer biological materials [18].
(18.Worth RJ, Sigurdsson S, House CH. Seeding life on the moons of the outer planets via lithopanspermia. Astrobiology. 2013;13(12):1155–65. doi: 10.1089/ast.2013.1028 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar][Ref list])
-3500M: The claim that phytoplankton produced oxygen for "nearly two billion years" is partially true; photosynthetic cyanobacteria produced oxygen for billions of years, starting around 3.5 billion years ago, creating the planet's breathable atmosphere well before land plants evolved. The term "plankoton" is a misspelling of "plankton," the tiny aquatic organisms that include both phytoplankton and zooplankton.
-3420M: Archaea (sg: archaeon; From Ancient Greek ἀρχαῖα (arkhaîa, “ancient”)) - Single-celled organisms lacking nuclei, formerly called archaebacteria, but now known to differ fundamentally from bacteria. It is a domain of single-celled organisms. These microorganisms lack cell nuclei and are therefore prokaryotes are mostly anaerobic and cannot be cultivated. They live in extreme environments such as thermophilic, hyperacidophilic, hyperhalophilic (hypersaline) or metal-resistant; or also in the temperate environment of marine and lake sediments. They are rarely found on the ground or in the open ocean. Archaea membranes contain ether linkanges, ester linkages are present in bacteria and eukaryotes. Ether and Ester both are organic compounds (i.e made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen). In the human microbiome, they are important in the gut, mouth, and on the skin.
-3400M: Hamersley Range, Australia (3.4 Billion Years Old) In Western Australia, the Hamersley Range is the second oldest mountain range in the world.
-- Archean Eon: Mesoarchean Era (-3200M to -2800M) starts --
3.2 to 2.8 billion years ago; early plate tectonics and shallow water microbial colonies.
-3200M:
-3100M: This region is believed to be where the first landmass emerged above the ocean. Researchers have found evidence of ancient rivers, beaches, and shallow seas in sedimentary rocks, indicating the presence of continental land dating back 3.1 billion years.
-3000M:[geo] Angel Falls 4.7 (2.8K) Waterfall Bolívar, Venezuela - Cascading from the summit of the Auyán-tepui table mountain within the Guiana Shield, the water here plunges over rock formations that are estimated to be over 1 to 3 billion years old. Hogenakkal Falls (India) Located on the Kaveri River, this waterfall drops over some of the oldest carbonate and carbonatite rocks in South Asia, dating back billions of years. Havasu Falls, Arizona - Tucked away inside the Grand Canyon, the stunning turquoise waters stream over rock layers carved out over 1.8 billion years.
-3000M: Earliest oxygen. cyanobacteria performing photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria evolve the ability to photosynthesize and start producing oxygen, releasing it into the atmosphere.
Some of the most abundant marine cyanobacteria, like Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus, are known to produce and accumulate hydrocarbons, predominantly C15 and C17 alkanes. They synthesize these hydrocarbons through two separate pathways.
-3000M: The key to understanding algal origins lies in the process of endosymbiosis. A free-living cyanobacterium was engulfed by a eukaryotic cell, and instead of being digested, it established a stable symbiotic relationship. This cyanobacterium eventually evolved into the plastid, the organelle responsible for photosynthesis in algae and plants. (algae)
Certain marine microorganisms, like the green microalga Botryococcus braunii, accumulate significant amounts of hydrocarbons, making them potential sources for biofuel production. Microalgae are microscopic, photosynthetic organisms found in both freshwater and marine environments. They are a diverse group with various applications, including food, biofuels, and bioremediation.
Botryococcus braunii is a green microalga known for its ability to produce large amounts of hydrocarbons, making it a promising source for biofuels and other valuable chemicals. It's a colonial species, meaning it forms colonies held together by a matrix of extracellular polysaccharides. Different strains of B. braunii produce varying amounts and types of hydrocarbons, leading to the classification of three main races: A, B, and L (though these are now considered separate species).
-3000M: Algae, a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms, have a complex and polyphyletic origin. Their evolution is largely understood through the lens of endosymbiosis, specifically the engulfment of a cyanobacterium by a eukaryotic cell, which eventually led to the evolution of plastids (organelles responsible for photosynthesis). This primary endosymbiosis event gave rise to three main lineages: plants (including green algae), red algae, and glaucophytes. While algae are not a monophyletic group (meaning they don't share a single common ancestor), their plastids all trace back to this single endosymbiotic event.
Algae, like all living organisms, contain genes that encode proteins and regulate cellular processes. These genes are found in both the nucleus and the chloroplasts, and some algae even have genes in mitochondria. Many algal genes are involved in photosynthesis, DNA damage response, and responses to environmental stresses. Recent research has shown that some algae, like green algae, can express multiple genes on a single mRNA molecule, a process more common in bacteria than previously thought.
-3000M: Mitochondria are thought to have originated from a single endosymbiotic event where an aerobic prokaryote (specifically, an alphaproteobacterium) was engulfed by a host cell, likely related to Asgard archaea. Over time, this endosymbiont evolved into the modern-day mitochondrion, transferring many of its genes to the host cell's nucleus. This event is considered a crucial step in the evolution of eukaryotes.
Over time, the endosymbiotic bacterium underwent significant evolutionary changes. Many of its genes were transferred to the host cell's nucleus, while the mitochondrion retained a smaller genome for its own functions, primarily energy production.
Mitochondria have their own DNA and genes. This mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is distinct from the DNA found in the cell's nucleus. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is organized into chromosomes, mtDNA is a circular, double-stranded molecule. (Human mtDNA contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for normal mitochondrial function. These genes encode for proteins, tRNAs, and rRNAs involved in processes like oxidative phosphorylation)
-3000M: Stromatolites are layered sedimentary formations created by microbial communities, primarily cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae). These microorganisms trap and bind sediment, forming distinctive, layered structures that can be flat, hummocky, or dome-shaped. They are among the oldest known evidence of life on Earth, with fossilized stromatolites dating back billions of years.
-3000M: Ancient Origins of Kruger National Park: The bedrock belongs to the primitive Basement Complex of the stable Kaapvaal Craton, which dates back more than 3 billion years (read more details at Safaria).k2c.co+1Park Distribution: Precambrian granites and gneisses underlie roughly 60 percent of the park, creating the rolling landscapes of the western sector.ResearchGateNeighboring Formations: The nearby Barberton Greenstone Belt shares this ancient 3-billion-to-3.5-billion-year timeline, offering a window into early Earth.
-- Archean Eon: Neoarchean Era (-2800M to -2500M) starts --
2.8 to 2.5 billion years ago; growth of early continental shields (cratons) and flourishing photosynthesizers.
-2800M:
-2630M:[Geography][Geology][Geo][Petrology][Mntngg] Wave Rock in Western Australia is so named because that is exactly what it looks like: an ocean wave. It forms one side of a hill that is known as Hyden Rock. The granite rocks date back 2.63 billion years. Wave Rock is known as a flared slope because of its curving shape. Both Wave and Hyden rocks are located in Hyden Wildlife Park, a nature preserve.
-- Archean Eon (-4000M to -2500M) ends --
-- Proterozoic Eon (-2500M to -541M) starts --
Began 2.5 billion years ago; oxygen increased in the air, and multi-celled life began to grow.
Proterozoic Eon (-2500M to -542M)
The Proterozoic Eon is the longest geologic eon in Earth's history, spanning from 2.5 billion to about 538.8 million years ago. It is defined by major milestones like the Great Oxidation Event, the first complex eukaryotic cells, and massive supercontinent cycles.
-- Proterozoic Eon: Paleoproterozoic Era (-2500M to -1600M) starts --
-- Proterozoic Eon: Paleoproterozoic Era: Siderian Period (-2500M to -2300M) --
Paleoproterozoic Era (2.5 to 1.6 billion years ago): Witnessed the Great Oxidation Event, the formation of banded iron formations, and the assembly of the supercontinent Columbia.
-2500M: Atmospheric oxygen. The Great Oxygenation Event occurs, which leads to the mass extinction of organisms that can't handle high levels of oxygen. The cyanobacteria have done their job well.
Photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis.
(In Archean eon, Earth's atmosphere had virtually no free oxygen, being rich in methane, a situation that changed dramatically with early photosynthesis.)
Archean Eon ended
Great Oxidation Event (GOE) started in -2460M?
-2460M: The first Oxygen Crisis, also known as the Great Oxidation Event (GOE), began approximately 2.4 to 2.3 billion years ago. It was triggered by photosynthetic cyanobacteria releasing oxygen as waste, which overwhelmed the environment, caused a massive extinction of anaerobic life, and led to a severe, long-term ice age.
-2460M: The Great Oxidation Event (GOE) started, also called the Great Oxygenation Event, the Oxygen Catastrophe, the Oxygen Revolution, the Oxygen Crisis, or the Oxygen Holocaust, was a time interval during the Early Earth's Paleoproterozoic era when the Earth's atmosphere and the shallow ocean first experienced a rise in the concentration of oxygen. This began approximately 2.460–2.426 Ga (billion years) ago, during the Siderian period, and ended approximately 2.060 Ga, during the Rhyacian. Geological, isotopic, and chemical evidence suggests that biologically-produced molecular oxygen (dioxygen or O2) started to accumulate in Earth's atmosphere and changed it from a weakly reducing atmosphere practically absent of oxygen into an oxidizing one containing abundant free oxygen, with oxygen levels being as high as 10% of their present atmospheric level by the end of the GOE.
-2426M: The Great Oxidation Event ended.
Great Oxidation Event (GOE) ended in -2200M?
Proterozoic eon starts.
-2500M: The Proterozoic is the third of the four geologic eons of Earth's history, spanning the time interval from 2500MYA to 538.8MYA, the longest eon of the Earth's geologic time scale. It is preceded by the Archean and followed by the Phanerozoic, and is the most recent part of the Precambrian "supereon".
-2500M: [Brazil] Rocks as old as 2.5 billion years are found on the eastern side of the Brazil continent. Because of continual geological activity in the Andes, on the western side, rocks there are much younger.
-2500M:[Tourism] Mount Segla on Senja island in Norway formed through ancient Precambrian-to-Paleozoic bedrock evolution followed by intense glacial carving during successive ice ages over the last 2.6 million years. Ancient Bedrock: The foundational rock of Senja consists of ancient metamorphic and igneous crystalline rocks dating back hundreds of millions to billions of years (part of the Fennoscandian Shield). The Baltic Shield or Fennoscandian Shield is a segment of the Earth's crust in Northern Europe formed during the Precambrian era. Its oldest core components date back 2.5 to 3.1 billion years, making it a foundational nucleus of the European continent composed of ancient Archean and Proterozoic rocks.
The lush inland of Senja, a large island off mainland Norway, is bounded by toothy coastal mountains. None of them make for a better viewpoint than Mount Segla. Its unmistakable, needle-like crag marks the end of a tough but rewarding trail from the fishing village of Fjordgård. Here we get a panoramic view of the mountain-lined bays and fjords that cut into this Arctic isle's northern coastline. See less
Ancient Bedrock: The foundational rock of Senja consists of ancient metamorphic and igneous crystalline rocks dating back hundreds of millions to billions of years (part of the Fennoscandian Shield).
Tectonic Uplift: The overarching rugged topography of coastal Northern Norway was elevated by major tectonic episodes, setting high-relief base structures.
Glacial Sculpting: During the Pleistocene ice ages, massive creeping glaciers repeatedly scoured the valleys and carved deep flanking fjords like Mefjorden, leaving behind the steep, razor-sharp 639-meter sheer vertical drop characteristic of Segla.
-2500M:[Tourism] Bow Fiddle Rock near Portknockie - Although the landscape has a remote, even primordial air about it, this tableau of sea and stone is only a short walk from the road, and not far from the village of Portknockie on Scotland's northeast coast. The prime attraction is quite naturally that extraordinary sea stack in the middle of our image. Aptly named Bow Fiddle Rock for its resemblance to the tip of a fiddle's bow, this angular formation is made of quartzite, and it's sculpted by the forces of erosion here at Moray Firth. Far from being simply a sight to see, it's also a home for nesting seabirds—including herring gulls and great black-backed gulls.
-2400M: The rise of eukaryotes is closely linked to a period of increasing atmospheric oxygen levels, often referred to as the Great Oxidation Event (GOE), which occurred roughly 2.4 to 2.2 billion years ago (2.4 BYO). While oxygenic photosynthesis evolved earlier, the GOE marks a significant increase in atmospheric oxygen concentration, reaching levels that could support aerobic respiration in eukaryotic cells. This increase in oxygen provided a crucial energy source for the evolution of complex eukaryotic life, particularly through the development of mitochondria, which are capable of aerobic respiration.
-- Proterozoic Eon: Paleoproterozoic Era: Rhyacian Period (-2300M to -2050M) --
-2300M:
-2050M:
-- Proterozoic Eon: Paleoproterozoic Era: Orosirian Period (-2050M to -1800M) --
-1850M: Eukaryotes - eu- (“true”) + Ancient Greek κάρυον (káruon, “nut”) + -ota. (superkingdom): Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia – kingdoms; (domain): Animalia, Fungi, Plantae, Protista – kingdoms.
-1850M: Eukaryotes, organisms with complex cells containing a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. While the exact timing of the emergence of eukaryotes is still a subject of scientific research and debate, it is generally thought to have occurred around 2 to 2.5 billion years ago. Current research suggests that all eukaryotes, including protists, can be organized into four primary supergroups: Excavata, SAR (Stramenopiles, Alveolates and Rhizarians), Archaeplastida, and Unikonta. These supergroups are established based on genetic and morphological studies, with a strong emphasis on genetic data.
The Rise of Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells, which contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, evolved later than prokaryotes. The evolution of eukaryotes marked a significant step in the complexity of life and paved the way for the development of multicellular organisms.
Diversification and Evolution:Over billions of years, life diversified into a vast array of species, with organisms adapting to various environments and evolving new traits. This diversification is still ongoing, with new species continually emerging and others going extinct.
Second Oxygen Crisis started - Mid-Proterozoic Era (~1.8-0.8 BYO)
Mid-Proterozoic Era (1.8-0.8 Ga): A long "boring billion" with very low oxygen (around 0.1% of modern levels) that restricted complex life, though simple organisms thrived.
-- Proterozoic Eon: Paleoproterozoic Era: Statherian Period (-1800M to -1600M) --
-1800M:
-1800M:Earth has experienced significant low-oxygen periods, especially before the Great Oxidation Event (~2.4-2.2 billion years ago), when the atmosphere was virtually anoxic, and during the Mid-Proterozoic Era (~1.8-0.8 billion years ago), an "Oxygen Ooze" phase with very low levels (around 0.1%) that limited animal evolution until much later. Other dips occurred, like the Triassic Period, with levels below today's 21%, contrasting with peaks like the Carboniferous Period (up to 35%), demonstrating oxygen's fluctuating role in Earth's history and life's development.
-1800M:[Geography][Geology][Geo][Petrology][Mntngg]The Domes de Fabedougou in south-western Burkina Faso are another of Mother Nature’s wonders, with each rock formation in a different shape. Some are tall and slender, others are short and fat, or vice versa; they can be close together or sometimes not. Some of the formations are shaped like rocks, others like pointing fingers. The limestone formations date back 1.8 billion years when the area was under water. Travelers who enjoy rock climbing will treasure this spot, as climbing on the domes is permissible.
-1700M: Early red blood cells likely evolved to store oxygen during low-oxygen periods (hypoxic environments) in marine habitats and allowed for more efficient oxygen transport, supporting the development of more complex body plans.
-1700M: Multicellular life, where organisms are composed of multiple cells, evolved from single-celled ancestors through several evolutionary steps. These steps involved the aggregation or division of cells, leading to the formation of more complex structures. Evidence suggests that this transition occurred at least 1.7 billion years ago, with macroscopic multicellular life appearing around 600 million years ago.
-1700M:[Tourism][Colombia] Aerial view of the Cerros de Mavecure - Three massive hills rise above the Inírida River in this somewhat remote area of eastern Colombia. Considered sacred by the Indigenous Puinave people who live in the region, these are truly ancient formations: The Cerros de Mavecure are part of the Guiana Shield, a Precambrian craton clocking in at an impressive 1.7 billion years old. Visitors frequently describe the place as 'magical' and 'mystical.' The dreamlike aura may have something to do with the lack of crowds and tourist amenities, along with the site's relative inaccessibility. Only reachable by a river journey of a few hours from the nearest large town, the Cerros de Mavecure retain their moody mystery.
-- Proterozoic Eon: Paleoproterozoic Era (-2500M to -1600M) ends --
-- Proterozoic Eon: Mesoproterozoic Era (-1600M to -1000M) starts --
-- Proterozoic Eon: Mesoproterozoic Era: Calymmian Period (-1600M to -1400M) --
-1600M: The Paleoproterozoic Era is the first and longest era of the Proterozoic Eon, spanning from 2,500 to 1,600 million years ago. It is defined by the Great Oxidation Event, the stabilization of Earth's first stable continents, and the appearance of early eukaryotic life.
-1500M: On one hand, the amorphean group probably originated in a freshwater or soil habitat (Fig. 4b), where it initially diversified into obazoans (which include well-known lineages such as animals and fungi but also several unicellular related lineages), as well as the amoebozoans.
-1500M: Fungi are an ancient group of organisms, with evidence suggesting they may have originated as early as 1 to 1.5 billion years ago. Fungi are believed to have originated about a billion years ago, with evidence suggesting they may have even appeared earlier. They are more closely related to animals than to plants, sharing a common ancestor within the eukaryotic supergroup Opisthokonta. Fungi likely played a crucial role in the evolution of life on Earth, particularly in the transition to land and the development of ecosystems. The Opisthokonta is a large supergroup of eukaryotes including choanoflagellates, sponges (metazoans) and fungi. In addition, the Opisthokonta also includes some amoeboid protists (e.g. Nuclearia). These amoeboid opisthokonts possess filopodia supported by actin filaments.
-1500M:The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest mountain ranges in the world, with its formation dating back to the Proterozoic Era, over 1.5 billion years ago. It was formed through a process of orogeny, which involves tectonic plate collisions and folding of the Earth's crust.
The smallest river in India is the Arvari River, located in Rajasthan. It is approximately 45 kilometers long. It is known for being revived through community efforts and water harvesting after being dry for 60 years.
The lost Saraswati River offers a significant challenge for geomorphologists and archaeologists. It is believed that the river used to flow through the present-day Thar Desert during the Vedic age.
The Godavari River is the largest non-Himalayan, monsoon-fed river in India, providing water resources for ∼75 million people. The Godavari River originates in the Western Ghats near Trimbakeshwar in Nashik district, Maharashtra, at an elevation of 1,067 meters. Specifically, it emerges from the Brahmagiri mountains near the Trimbakeshwar Temple. The river then flows for approximately 1,465 kilometers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. In terms of length, catchment area and discharge, the Godavari is the largest in peninsular India, and had been dubbed as the Dakshina Ganga (Southern Ganges). The Godavari River rises from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of Maharashtra about 80 km from the Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 m. The total length of Godavari from its origin to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465 km. The Godavari River originates in the Maharashtra district of Nashik, where Trimbakeshwar is located. It is the oldest river in India, dating back thousands of years. It is referred to as the “Ganga of South India” in certain circles. Discharge: 3,505 m³/s; Basin area: 312,812 km². The Godavari is India's second longest river after the Ganga River and drains the third largest basin in India, covering about 10% of India's total geographical area.
Banas River, river in Rajasthan state, northwestern India. It rises near Kumbhalgarh and cuts its way tortuously through the Aravalli Range. The Banas River is often referred to as the "Van ki Asha" (Hope of Forest) due to its significance in supporting the ecosystems and forests in its basin. This river originates from the Aravalli Hills in Rajasthan, specifically in the Kumbhalgarh area.
Abu hills fall between the Banas and Sipu sub-basin. About 30% of Mount Abu hills direct runoff drains into Sipu river while about 70% of mount Abu hills direct runoff flows into Banas river. The ocnfluence of sipu river and Banas river is 12 km downstream of dantiwada dam.
Mount Abu's ancient name was Arbuda or Arbudaranya, which translates to "forest of Arbuda". This name is linked to the mythical serpent Arbuda, who is said to have saved Lord Shiva's bull, Nandi, from a chasm. Over time, the name evolved into the more familiar Mount Abu.
The Luni is the largest river in the Thar Desert in Northwest India. It originates in Naga hills of the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer, passes through the southeastern portion of the Thar Desert, and ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, after travelling a distance of 495 km (308 mi). The Luni derived its name from the Sanskrit lavanavari (“salt river”) and is so called because of its excessive salinity. With a course of some 330 miles (530 km), the Luni is the only major river of the area, and it serves as an essential source of irrigation waters.
Omkareshwar is formed by the sacred river Narmada. This is one of the most sacred rivers in India and is now home to one of the world's largest solar power plant. The temple is situated on Mandhata or Shivpuri island on the banks of Narmada and Kaveri river (a tributary of Narmada). The Narmada River is often cited as a river that has no major tributaries. While it does have some smaller streams that join it, it's generally considered to lack the large, significant tributaries that characterize other major Indian rivers. The Narmada flows westward, emptying into the Arabian Sea. Along her 1,312 km long course, the Narmada is decorated with thousands of Hindu temples. While Narmada means 'the giver of joy', it is also called the Virgin river.12 Jun 2024 The story of why Mother Narmada remained unmarried is woven into the cultural fabric of India, resonating with themes of purity and independence. According to folklore, Narmada was once in love with Shonbhadra, a river personified as a handsome prince.
The Mekong River, also known as Mother of Rivers in Laos and Thailand, is the 12th longest river in the world.
About Painganga River. The Painganga River (also known as the Penganga River) is the chief river of the Yavatmal district in Maharashtra state and flows along the south-east boundaries of the district in a winding, meandering course. Origin: It originates in the Ajantha ranges in Aurangabad district in Maharashtra.
The Brahmaputra is known as the Red River in India. Brahmaputra river turns blood-red for 3 days in June every year and this event is followed by a grand Ambubachi Mela celebration for the goddess Shakti.
The Chambal River thus became more than just a river. It became a symbol of resistance and an example of the tenacity of people who dared to question social norms. The eerie nickname “Ghost River” comes from the tapestry of myths, curses, and memories of a bygone era.19 Mar 2024. Unlike most rivers in India, the Chambal was never worshipped—legend called it cursed, born of blood. But the very myth that kept kept settlements and industries away, also kept the river wild and clean.
The Snake River originates in Wyoming and arcs across southern Idaho before turning north along the Idaho-Oregon border. The river then enters Washington and flows west to the Columbia River. It is the Columbia's largest tributary, an important source of irrigation water for potatoes, sugar beets, and other crops.
This river's name, Subarnarekha, literally translates to “line/streak of gold” in several Indian languages. For several years, gold has been mined at the river village, Piska near Ranchi, situated at the river's origin.
Damodar River was earlier known as the "River of Sorrows" as it used to flood many areas of Bardhaman, Hooghly, Howrah and Medinipur districts.
'River of Silver'), also called the River Plate or La Plata River in English, is the estuary formed by the confluence of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River at Punta Gorda. It empties into the Atlantic Ocean and forms a funnel-shaped indentation on the southeastern coastline of South America.
The Indus River is often called the "Father of Rivers". It is one of the longest rivers in Asia, flowing through India and Pakistan, and is considered a cradle of civilization, with its basin supporting numerous cultures and civilizations.
While the Ganges River is also a significant and revered river in India, often called "Father of Rivers" due to its extensive network and cultural importance, the Indus River is more commonly recognized by that title. The Mississippi River is also called "Father of Waters" in North America.
The correct answer is the Godavari. The Godavari is the largest river in peninsular India and hence the name is given as Vridha Ganga. The Godavari is India's second-longest river after the Ganga. Its source is in Triambakeshwar, Maharashtra.
Which river is called Kali Ganga? The correct answer is Sharda. - Which river also known as Kali river in the north?
Kallanai Dam is the fourth oldest dam in the world, and first in India. It is a rock-solid project that has survived 2,000 years. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Thanjavur delta region for irrigation via canals.
...himalayan rivers
Maharana Pratap Sagar, also known as Pong Reservoir or Pong Dam Lake, is a large reservoir in Fatehpur, Jawali and Dehra tehsil of Kangra district of the state of Himachal Pradesh in India. It was created in 1975, by building the highest earthfill dam in India on the Beas River in the wetland zone of the Siwalik Hills.
Temples of modern India was a term coined by India's first Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru while starting the construction of the Bhakra Nangal Dam to describe scientific research institutes, steel plants, power plants, dams being launched in India after independence to jumpstart scientific and industrial progress.
The Ranjit Sagar Dam, also known as the Thein Dam, is part of a hydroelectric project constructed by the Punjab Irrigation Department on the Ravi River on the border of Union Territory, Jammu and Kashmir and state Punjab.
The correct answer is Tehri dam. Key Points: The Tehri Dam is the highest dam in India and the fourth-highest dam in the entire planet.
Marriage of rivers - According to Hindu scriptures, Devprayag is the sacred place of merging of two visible heavenly rivers, Alaknanda and Bhagirathi, to form the holy Ganges.
Punjab was called the land of the seven rivers instead of the land of five rivers. If the Saraswati and five major Indian rivers are included (Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Beas, the latter all Indus tributaries), one river, possibly the Kubha, is absent.
Flowing through the challenging terrains of Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan, the Shyok River, also known as "The River of Death," earned its name from the perilous journeys of Central Asian traders who braved its icy currents during winters.
The Indus River, sometimes also called the Sindhu River, has many other names including Sengge Chu ("Lion River") in Tibetan, Abaseen ("The Father of Rivers") in Pashto, and Shendu in Chinese. The Indus River flows through the modern countries of China, India, and Pakistan.
Which river is known as the river of heaven? As the Ganges had descended from heaven to earth in the Hindu tradition, she is also considered the vehicle of ascent, from earth to heaven.
Wearing and shedding various symbols in its multiple incarnations and various lives, Chenab has also donned the symbol of love, perhaps its most well-known metaphor.
The Yamuna is nothing but a tiny sewage drain with zero aquatic life as it leaves Delhi, says P V Dehadrai, former director-general (fishery), ICAR, who has done a study on the status of fish and fisherfolk.
Yarlung Tsangpo or Brahmaputra, the only male river that literally translates as 'Son of Brahma', is revered by Hindus, Jains and Buddhists.
The Brahmaputra descends from the Roof of the World. It flows around the Himalayas and finally, as a giant conveyor belt of sediment, pushes South Asia's coastline and further out into the Indian Ocean. It begins as the world's highest major river. It thunders through the planet's biggest gorge.
The riverbed of the Ganges contains quartz sand, smooth pebbles, and rock fragments weathered from Himalayan and peninsular source rocks. The dominant mineral types include quartz, feldspar, and micas, alongside larger rock pieces like quartzite, schist, and granite. Quartz & Sand: Makes up over 80% of the loose bed material and sandbars along the river.Quartzite & Sandstone: Durable rocks originating from the Himalayan foothills that survive long journeys as smooth pebbles and cobbles.Granite & Gneiss: Crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks washed down from higher mountain regions.Schist & Phyllite: Foliated metamorphic rocks commonly found in the upper and middle reaches.Heavy Minerals: Trace amounts of garnet, tourmaline, zircon, and hornblende mixed into the sand.
The Okavango River never reaches the sea, instead spilling out onto the sands of the vast Kalahari Desert where nearly 80 percent is lost through evaporation and the rest sinks away into the seemingly limitless underground water reservoir.
Which is the only country that has no river? Vatican City: The world's smallest country, Vatican City, covers only 0.44 square kilometres and is located within Rome, Italy. This independent state has no rivers within its borders and depends on the Italian water supply for its needs
Varanasi – Rivers Varuna, Assi & Ganga. The historical city of India, Varanasi is a three riverbank city. It is well known to be the city on Banks of River Ganga. However, many people forget that it is a city whose name comes from the two rivers located on its North and South end.
The Ghaggar-Hakra river, a significant seasonal river running through India and Pakistan, is often referred to as the “Dead River.” It flows prominently during the rainy season, originating near Shimla in the Shivalik mountains of Himachal Pradesh.
The name Blue River began to be applied in the 18th century, apparently owing to a former name of the Dam Chu or Min and to analogy with the Yellow River, but it was frequently explained in early English references as a 'translation' of Jiang, Jiangkou, or Yangzijiang.
Surveys in 1957 found the river was unable to sustain life, and the River Thames was eventually declared “biologically dead”. With considerable effort from policymakers, the river's fate began to change. The river "Isis" is not a separate river system; it is simply the historical and local name used for the upper portion of the River Thames as it flows through Oxford.
River Thames: England's longest river, flowing 215 miles (346 km) from the Cotswolds through Oxford, Reading, and London to the North Sea.
River Severn: The longest river in the entire United Kingdom at 220 miles (354 km), flowing from mid-Wales through Shropshire, Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire into the Bristol Channel.
River Isis: The historical and traditional name given to the upper portion of the River Thames in Oxfordshire, particularly while it flows through the city of Oxford before it meets the River Thame.
River Wye: The fifth-longest river in the UK (135 miles or 218 km), acting largely as the border between England and Wales, flowing past Hereford and Monmouth to join the estuary of the River Severn.
Severn and Wye Confluence: The River Wye flows into the Severn Estuary near Chepstow, creating a famous joint tidal basin and landscape captured in art and geography.
This river's name, Subarnarekha, literally translates to “line/streak of gold” in several Indian languages. For several years, gold has been mined at the river village, Piska near Ranchi, situated at the river's origin.
dried rivers of India...
Which river has no water?
They include Rushikulya, Bahuda, Vamsadhara, Nagavali, Sarada, Varaha, Tandava, Eluru, Gundlakamma, Tammileru, Musi, Paleru and Munneru.
India's parched rivers: At least 13 without water, much lower than ...
-- Proterozoic Eon: Mesoproterozoic Era: Ectasian Period (-1400M to -1200M) --
-1400M:
-1300M: The event referred to was the merger of two black holes approximately 1.3 billion years ago, creating a single, more massive black hole and releasing gravitational waves that were detected on Earth on September 14, 2015, by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) scientists. This historic detection, known as GW150914, was the first direct observation of gravitational waves and a monumental confirmation of Einstein's theory of general relativity, opening a new window into observing the universe. Two massive black holes, each roughly 30 times the mass of the Sun, spiraled inward due to the emission of gravitational waves. This violent collision converted about three solar masses of matter into energy, which was released as a powerful burst of gravitational waves. The event was detected by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO). The gravitational waves took 1.3 billion years to travel from the distant event to reach Earth, with the LIGO detectors on Earth recording the "thump" in September 2015.
-1250M: Earliest sexual reproduction. Meiosis and sexual reproduction appear.
-1200M: The ancestors of land plants evolved in water. An algal scum formed on the land 1,200 million years ago, but it was not until the Ordovician, around 450 million years ago, that the first land plants appeared, with a level of organization like that of bryophytes. However, evidence from carbon isotope ratios in Precambrian rocks suggests that complex plants developed over 1000 mya.
-1200M: [Tourism][Colombia] Caño Cristales river in central Colombia. The physical rock foundation underlying the Caño Cristales river formed during the Precambrian supereon, specifically in the Paleoproterozoic era (approximately 1.2 to 1.8 billion years ago).
-- Proterozoic Eon: Mesoproterozoic Era: Stenian Period (-1200M to -1000M) --
-1000M:
-- Proterozoic Eon: Mesoproterozoic Era (-1600M to -1000M) ends --
-- Proterozoic Eon: Neoproterozoic Era (-1000 to -538.8M) starts --
-- Proterozoic Eon: Neoproterozoic Era: Tonian Period (-1000M to -720M) --
-1000M:
-1000M: The Neoproterozoic Era was the last era of the Proterozoic Eon, spanning from approximately 1 billion to 538.8 million years ago. It was a revolutionary period marked by intense geological and biological upheaval, including the break-up and assembly of supercontinents, the most severe glaciation events in Earth's history (Snowball Earth), significant changes in the ocean and atmosphere, and the advent of complex multicellular life, such as the Ediacaran biota.
-1000M: Trace fossils such as tracks and burrows found in the Tonian period (from 1 gya or -1000MYA to -720MYA) may indicate the presence of triploblastic worm-like animals, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as earthworms. However, similar tracks are produced by the giant single-celled protist Gromia sphaerica, so the Tonian trace fossils may not indicate early animal evolution. Gromia sphaerica is a large spherical testate amoeba, a single-celled eukaryotic organism and the largest of its genus, Gromia. The genus itself contains about 13 known species, 3 of which were discovered as late as 2005.
-1000M:Leeches, belonging to the annelid class Hirudinea, are believed to have evolved from freshwater oligochaete worms. The transition from oligochaete to leech involved changes in embryonic development and feeding behavior, leading to the development of characteristic features like suckers, loss of chaetae, loss of septa, and a fixed number of segments. The oldest leech fossils date back to the middle Permian period, around 266 million years ago. The evolutionary leap from oligochaete to leech involved significant changes in embryonic development, specifically in the terminal stages.
-1000M: Yeasts are single-celled eukaryotic microorganisms belonging to the fungi kingdom, with at least 1,500 recognized species. They are believed to have originated hundreds of millions of years ago. Yeasts are commonly found in diverse environments, including soil, water, and on plant surfaces like leaves and fruits. Their ability to ferment sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide, has made them crucial in food and beverage production, as well as in scientific research.
Yeasts are classified as either ascomycetous or basidiomycetous fungi based on their reproductive methods (budding or fission).
While wild yeast populations are widely distributed, studies suggest the domesticated populations of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast) likely originated in China/Far East Asia, with distinct lineages adapted to different fermentation processes.
1 billion years ago (BYO).
"Triploblastic animals more than 1 billion years ago: trace fossil evidence from india". Seilacher, Adolf; Bose, Pradip K.; Pfluger, Friedrich (2 October 1998).
Triploblastic = having a body derived from three embryonic cell layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm), as in all multicellular animals except sponges and coelenterates.
Some palaeontologists have suggested that animals appeared much earlier than the Cambrian explosion, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago.
While vertebrate pigment cells are well-studied, invertebrates also possess pigment cells, like chromatophores in cephalopods, which enable rapid color changes for camouflage and communication. The term chromatophore was adopted (following Sangiovanni's chromoforo) as the name for pigment-bearing cells derived from the neural crest of cold-blooded vertebrates and cephalopods.
Lancelets, the earliest known chordates, diverged from the lineage leading to vertebrates early in chordate evolution, possibly during or before the Cambrian period.
Vertebrates are a subgroup of the chordates, a phylum that also includes tunicates (sea squirts) and lancelets (amphioxus). Chordates are characterized by the presence of a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail at some point in their development. The earliest known vertebrate fossils are jawless fish, similar to modern hagfish. These fish possessed a cranium (skull) but lacked a vertebral column (backbone).
The Cambrian period saw a rapid diversification of vertebrate forms, with the emergence of both jawless and jawed lineages.
The evolution of jaws, which occurred later, allowed for a wider range of feeding strategies and contributed to the success of jawed vertebrates.
Notochord: A flexible rod providing support, which is replaced by the vertebral column in vertebrates.
Neural crest cells: These cells play a crucial role in the development of many vertebrate features, including the skull, teeth, and some parts of the nervous system.
Mineralized skeleton: The development of bone and cartilage provided skeletal support and protection.
More complex brain: Vertebrates have a more developed brain, particularly the forebrain, compared to their invertebrate relatives.
Pigment-bearing cells, or chromatophores, play a crucial role in animal coloration and are derived from neural crest cells in vertebrates. These cells develop through a series of complex processes, including delamination from the neural tube, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. The types of pigment cells, their distribution, and the resulting color patterns vary significantly across different species, reflecting diverse evolutionary pressures related to camouflage, signaling, and other functions.
Vertebrates, especially fish, amphibians, and reptiles, exhibit diverse types of chromatophores, each containing different pigments or reflective structures. Common examples include melanophores (black/brown), xanthophores (yellow/orange), and iridophores (reflecting light).
The arrangement of pigment cells in specific patterns (stripes, spots, etc.) arises from a combination of cell-autonomous mechanisms within the pigment cells themselves, interactions between different chromatophore types, and influences from the surrounding tissue environment.
Pigment patterns have evolved in response to various selective pressures, including camouflage (blending with the background), signaling (attracting mates, deterring rivals), and protection from harmful UV radiation.
A biosignature is any substance, structure, or pattern—such as molecular fossils, isotopic ratios, or atmospheric gases—whose origin inherently requires a biological agent. These signs indicate past or present life and are crucial in astrobiology for detecting extraterrestrial life, often interpreted within the context of their geological or atmospheric environment. They can be morphological (fossils, stromatolites, cellular structures) or chemical (organic molecules, specific isotopes, atmospheric gases like O2 or CH4. Examples include amino acids, lipids, pigments, and specific molecular "handedness" (chirality).
Second Oxygen Crisis ended - Mid-Proterozoic Era (~1.8-0.8 BYO)
-800M: Multi-cellular life.
The really interesting thing is, as more complex life evolves – that is, multicellular life with mouths, brains, and internal organs – taste and smell play a central role. They are linchpins of survival, of winning the game of natural selection. They allow an animal to sense prey is nearby, and to derive some satisfaction from devouring it. The more acute they are, the better. And the more acute they become, the more brainpower is needed to process them. So the emergence of more sophisticated brains and behavior are, in evolutionary history, very often tied to sharpening senses of smell and taste. You can see this in anatomy: our systems for taste and smell are tied into the oldest, most “primitive” parts of the brain.
Neuroscience:
The emergence of multicellular organisms, especially invertebrates and vertebrates, marked a significant step in the development of endocrine systems. Invertebrates like insects and mollusks have simple endocrine systems, while vertebrates, including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, have more complex endocrine systems.
Predecessors of neurons were the Peptidergic secretory cells. They eventually gained new gene modules which enabled cells to create post-synaptic scaffolds and ion channels that generate fast electrical signals. Peptidergic secretory cells, often referred to as peptide-secreting cells (endocrine cells), are specialized cells that play a crucial role in various physiological processes by producing and releasing peptides, which are short chains of amino acids. These peptides act as signaling molecules and are involved in numerous functions within the body, including neurotransmission, hormone regulation, and immune responses.
The diffuse nervous system is the most primitive nervous system. In diffuse systems nerve cells are distributed throughout the organism, usually beneath the outer epidermal layer.
Simple nerve nets seen in acoels (basal bilaterians) and cnidarians are thought to be the ancestral condition for the Planulozoa (bilaterians plus cnidarians and, perhaps, placozoans).
The flatworms were the first invertebrates to exhibit bilateral symmetry and also the first to develop a central nervous system with a brain.
-810M: According to a new study, the first mushrooms were already present on Earth between 715 and 810 million years ago, 300 million years earlier than the scientific community had believed until now.
-850M: A global glaciation period may have occurred.
-750M: Protozoans. (Proto=first; zoa=animal) "primitive, or original animals". are a polyphyletic group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic debris.
-850M: A global glaciation period may have occurred.
-750M: Protozoans. (Proto=first; zoa=animal) "primitive, or original animals". are a polyphyletic group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic debris.
-- Proterozoic Eon: Neoproterozoic Era: Cryogenian Period (-720M to -635M) --
-720M:
-700M: The vast majority of existing animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other. All bilateria are thought to have descended from a common wormlike ancestor that appeared in the Cryogenian period, 700–650 million years ago. The fundamental bilaterian body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from mouth to anus, and a nerve cord with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the "brain".
-665M: Early fossils that might represent animals appear for example in the 665-million-year-old rocks of the Trezona Formation of South Australia. These fossils are interpreted as most probably being early sponges.
-650M: The Aravalli Range in India, estimated to be around 670 million years old, is also considered one of the oldest mountain ranges. (Barberton Mountains)
-- Proterozoic Eon: Neoproterozoic Era: Ediacaran Period (-635M to -539M) --
-635M: The Ediacaran Period (c. 635–541 Ma) was a pivotal geological time, marking the end of the Precambrian and the first appearance of large, complex, soft-bodied multicellular organisms (the Ediacaran biota) before the Cambrian Explosion, characterized by enigmatic, often frond-like forms like Dickinsonia preserved as impressions in ancient sediments, hinting at early animal evolution in the shallow, nutrient-rich seas following major glaciations. (primitive consciousness)
-635M: The Ediacaran is a geologic period spanning from 635 to 538 million years ago, marking the final chapter of the Proterozoic Eon and featuring the first complex multicellular life on Earth. Timeline and EnvironmentLasted for about 97 million years before the Cambrian Period.Followed the severe global ice ages of the Cryogenian "Snowball Earth" period.Saw a major rise in atmospheric and oceanic oxygen levels, allowing larger life forms to thrive. The Ediacaran Biota: Characterized by soft-bodied, strange organisms like Dickinsonia, Charnia, and Kimberella.Many organisms possessed quilt-like or fractal body plans that do not look like modern animals.Most forms mysteriously vanished or were outcompeted right before the rapid diversification of life in the Cambrian explosion.
-635M: The earliest evidence of invertebrate life dates back to the Ediacaran Period, which occurred approximately 635 to 541 million years ago. Invertebrates are animals that lack a vertebral column (backbone) and are characterized by their absence of a spinal cord protected by bone. They include a vast array of organisms, such as insects, mollusks, arachnids, crustaceans, worms, and more. During this time, multicellular organisms, including some that are believed to be early invertebrates, left fossilized impressions on sedimentary rocks. One of the most famous Ediacaran fossil sites is the Ediacara Hills in South Australia, where a variety of soft-bodied organisms are preserved. Many of these early organisms lacked hard shells or skeletons, so their fossils are typically impressions or imprints left on sedimentary surfaces. The exact classification of these Ediacaran organisms, whether they are truly invertebrates or represent a separate branch of life, remains a subject of scientific study and debate. Some of the notable Ediacaran fossils that may represent early invertebrates include forms like Dickinsonia and Spriggina.
-635M: Earliest Widespread Nervous Systems: Some researchers argue that simpler organisms with basic neural structures, such as early bilaterian worms, may have possessed primitive consciousness in the Ediacaran Period (pre-Cambrian).
-600M: More-primitive metazoans without skeletons—the Ediacara fauna—appeared earlier (more than 600 million years ago), after the end of the Varanger-Marinoan ice age at 580 million years ago and before the onset of the Cambrian Period at 541 million years ago. Metazoa (meta = later; zoa = animal)
-600M: Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe are two well-studied yeast species that diverged approximately 300 to 600 million years ago.
-600M: macroscopic multicellular life appearing around 600 million years ago.
-600:[FnB] Hydroponics, the practice of growing plants without soil, has ancient roots, with some of the earliest examples found in the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (600 BC) and the Aztec (1100 AD) floating gardens (chinampas). Modern hydroponics, as a scientifically studied method, emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries, with key contributions from scientists like Julius von Sachs and Wilhelm Knop, and later William Frederick Gericke who popularized it as a viable agricultural technique.
-600M:[Geography] Gondwana was a supercontinent that formed around 500-600 million years ago and lasted for approximately 450-500 million years before beginning its breakup about 180 million years ago. The continent consisted of modern-day India, Australia, Antarctica, Africa, South America, and Arabia, among others, and was a major landmass during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras before it eventually broke apart into the separate continents we see today.
-580M: The Ediacaran biota herald the start of the Cambrian explosion. The appearance of most modern phyla of animals begin to appear in the fossil record.
-570M: Sight, or at least the ability to detect light, was another bacterial invention, but true image-forming eyes didn't evolve until multicellular animals appeared.
-560M:The earliest fungi appear
-550M: First evidence of Ctenophora (comb jellies), Porifera (sponges), Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones) appear in the fossil record.
-550M: First evidence of Ctenophora (comb jellies), Porifera (sponges), Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones) appear in the fossil record.
-550M: The Proto-Tethys Ocean (-550M to -330M) and Paleo-Tethys Ocean were ancient precursor oceans that existed before the final Neo-Tethys phase. Proto-Tethys Ocean (Latest Ediacaran to Carboniferous)Active timeframe: 550 to 330 million years ago (Ma).Formation: Opened during the breakup of the supercontinent Pannotia, sitting between Proto-Laurasia and Gondwana.Closure: Shrank and closed during the Carboniferous period (ca. 330 Ma) as the North China and other cratons collided with northern continental blocks.
--Billion years ago (BYO)--
--------------------------- Precambrian eon ends. Begins Phanerozoic Eon -------------------------------------
Phanerozoic Eon (our current eon, began 542 million years ago to present)- Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era and Cenozoic Era-542M: Paleozoic Era begins till -251M.
-542M: Monoplacophorans were a diverse group during the Paleozoic era, with fossils dating back to the Cambrian period. Monoplacophora, a class of mollusks, were initially known only from fossils and were thought to have gone extinct during the Devonian period. However, in 1952, a living monoplacophoran, Neopilina galathaea, was discovered, revolutionizing our understanding of their origin and evolution. This discovery revealed that they possess serially repeated organs, suggesting a link to segmented organisms like annelids and arthropods. Further research indicates that Monoplacophora are likely a specialized branch of the molluscan lineage, rather than a transitional form between annelids and mollusks. (chitons)
-542M: Early Invertebrates: Invertebrates with complex, developed nervous systems, such as cephalopods (octopuses, squids) and crustaceans (crabs, lobsters), are now recognized as having significant sentient capacity, likely evolving much earlier than complex mammals. (primitive conciousness)
-542M: The "Brain" Development: Research indicates that the lamprey represents one of the simplest living vertebrates with the necessary neural requisites for sensory consciousness. Lampreys are ancient, jawless vertebrates (agnathans) that branched off early in vertebrate evolution, with origins potentially over 500 million years ago, serving as crucial "living fossils" for understanding early vertebrate life, retaining primitive traits but also possessing unique features like a complex life cycle with a filter-feeding larval stage (ammocoete) and metamorphosis, a system that likely evolved as they moved into freshwater environments from marine ancestors, with fossils showing conserved morphology for over 360 million years.
-- Proterozoic Eon (-2500M to -541M) ends --
-- Phanerozoic Eon (-541M to the present day) starts --
Began 541 million years ago and continues today; this is the current eon with abundant plant and animal life.
-541M: Cambrian Period starts till -485M.
-541M: Paleozoic (541-252 million years ago) means 'ancient life. ' The oldest animals on Earth appeared just before the start of this era in the Ediacaran Period, but scientists had not yet discovered them when the geologic timescale was made.
-541M:The Paleozoic Era (approx. 541–252 million years ago) was a "time of ancient life" featuring major evolutionary milestones, including the Cambrian explosion of marine life, the colonization of land by plants and animals, and the assembly of the supercontinent Pangaea. It ended with the massive Permian extinction.
-541M: Sentience is often linked to the development of central nervous systems, particularly in the Cambrian period when image-forming eyes appeared. Some definitions argue that all organisms with sensory organs (seeing, hearing, feeling) are sentient, which would include most animals. While sentient beings can "feel" (pain, pleasure), sapience (self-awareness, high-level cognition) appeared much later, often associated with the genus Homo.
-541M: The Cambrian is a geological period of Earth's history, part of the Paleozoic Era, that lasted from approximately 541 million to 485.4 million years ago and is characterized by the Cambrian Explosion, a period of rapid diversification of complex, multicellular life, including many major animal groups like arthropods and early chordates. During this time, organisms developed hard parts like shells, and early predators emerged.
-541M: The earliest organisms with red blood, defined as having hemoglobin-containing cells, are believed to have appeared with the rise of complex animal life, likely in the early Cambrian period, approximately 540–530 million years ago. While hemoglobin-like proteins existed much earlier, the specific encapsulation of these proteins within red blood cells (erythrocytes) to transport oxygen emerged as part of the development of closed circulatory systems in early invertebrates.
-541M: The most basal group of organisms containing true red blood cells are thought to be phoronids (horseshoe worms). Annelids and Nematodes: Other early creatures with red blood included various annelids (segmented worms) and nemertids.
-541M: The body stores iron in the form of 2 proteins – ferritin (in men it accounts for about 70% of stored iron, in women 80%) and haemosiderin. The proteins are found in the liver, bone marrow, spleen and muscles.
-541M: The formation of the Fezzan Basin can be traced back to the intersection of two tectonic plates, a geological phenomenon that occurred during the Paleozoic era. The collision of these plates led to the thickening of the Earth’s crust, subsequently resulting in subsidence and the formation of a depression in the landscape, known today as the Fezzan Basin. Over time, this basin witnessed the deposition of continental intercalaire and other terrestrial rocks, while substantial volumes of water became entrapped within underground aquifers. Notably, a layer of basalt separates the Fezzan and Kufra Basins, both of which are covered by layers of sand.
-540M: Plankton did not have a single origin, but rather evolved from diverse marine life, with some forms appearing in the early history of Earth and others evolving much later, such as the modern eukaryotic phytoplankton like diatoms and coccolithophores, which appeared during the Mesozoic Era. The origin of different planktonic groups varies, with unicellular marine cyanobacteria originating in the Neoproterozoic or early Cambrian, and other types, like the larvae of sea creatures, being a part of the life cycle of already established animals.
-- Proterozoic Eon: Neoproterozoic Era (-1000 to -538.8M) ends --
-- Phanerozoic Eon: Paleozoic Era: Cambrian Period (-539M to -485M) --
-- Phanerozoic Eon: Paleozoic Era: Cambrian Period: Terreneuvian Epoch (-539M to -521M) --
-539M:
-538.8M:
-- Paleozoic Era (-538.8M to -251.9M) starts --
The Paleozoic Era is a major geological time period spanning from 538.8 million to 251.9 million years ago, characterized by the Cambrian explosion, the colonization of land by plants and animals, and the Permian-Triassic extinction event.
Marine Beginnings: Life started and diversified heavily in shallow seas.
Moving to Land: Plants, insects, and vertebrates (amphibians and reptiles) moved onto dry land.
The Great Dying: The era ended with the biggest mass extinction ever, wiping out about 96% of marine species.
-- Paleozoic Era: Cambrian period (-538.8M to -485.4M) starts --
Rapid surge of marine life, famous for trilobites and complex invertebrates.
Proterozoic eon ends.
Phanerozoic eon starts and continuing till date.
-535M: major diversification of living things in the ocean
-530M: Land Life. first footprints on land.
-540M: Early life forms began to flourish during the Cambrian Explosion.
-538.8M: The Neoproterozoic Era was the last era of the Proterozoic Eon, spanning from approximately 1 billion to 538.8 million years ago. It was a revolutionary period marked by intense geological and biological upheaval, including the break-up and assembly of supercontinents, the most severe glaciation events in Earth's history (Snowball Earth), significant changes in the ocean and atmosphere, and the advent of complex multicellular life, such as the Ediacaran biota.
-538M:The Cambrian Period starts (for next 54 million years). The Cambrian Period spanning from roughly 538.8 to 485.4 million years ago, marks the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era. It is famous for the "Cambrian explosion," a geologically rapid diversification of life where many major animal phyla first appeared in the fossil record. This period witnessed the emergence of diverse invertebrates, including the first vertebrates (fishes), and the evolution of hard body parts, like calcium carbonate shells, which are more easily fossilized.
-530M: Cephalopods, a class of marine animals including squid, octopus, and nautilus, originated from a monoplacophoran-like ancestor during the Cambrian period, approximately 530 million years ago. This ancestor is believed to have possessed a conical, external shell that evolved into the chambered buoyancy apparatus seen in cephalopods. They diversified rapidly, with various lineages emerging during the Ordovician period.
-525M: Earliest Potential Sentience (Subjective Experience/Pain): The first beings with the capacity to feel pain and experience their environment were likely marine vertebrates during the Cambrian explosion, around 525 million years ago. Consciousness is the ability to be aware of and understand your own thoughts, feelings, and surroundings. It’s like your mind's ability to light up and say, "Hey, I exist, and I'm experiencing the world around me!"
-- Phanerozoic Eon: Paleozoic Era: Cambrian Period: Series 2 Epoch (-521M to -509M) --
-521M:
-520M: Lancelets, also known as amphioxus, are small, fish-like marine animals considered to be living representatives of an early chordate lineage, from which vertebrates are thought to have evolved. They are important in understanding vertebrate origins due to their possession of key chordate characteristics in a simpler, more accessible form. Lancelets are among the earliest known chordates, with fossils dating back to the Cambrian period, over 520 million years ago. Lancelets possess a notochord, dorsal nerve cord, pharynx with gill slits, and a post-anal tail, all characteristic of chordates.
Some scientists view lancelets as a potential proxy for the invertebrate ancestor of vertebrates, highlighting how features like segmented muscles and a closed circulatory system might have evolved.
Comparing the genomes of lancelets and vertebrates, and how genes are expressed and function, can reveal how vertebrate characteristics evolved from simpler ancestral forms.
While they represent an ancient lineage, studies suggest that the modern lancelet species diversified more recently, possibly during the Cretaceous or Cenozoic periods.
-520M:
-518M: Vertebrates originated from within the chordate group, which also includes tunicates and lancelets. These early chordates, in turn, are thought to have evolved from a group of invertebrate animals. The earliest vertebrate fossils, belonging to jawless fish, date back to the Cambrian period, approximately 518 million years ago.
-518M:The earliest vertebrate fossils are found in the Chengjiang biota of China, dating back to the Early Cambrian period, around 518 million years ago.
-510M: first cephalopods (nautiloids and chiton).
-- Phanerozoic Eon: Paleozoic Era: Cambrian Period: Miaolingian Epoch (-509M to -497M) --
-509M: Burgess Shale formed during the middle Cambrian period when the site was a sea floor at the base of an underwater cliff. Periodic underwater mudslides rapidly buried marine life in low-oxygen conditions, preventing decay. Burgess Shale was discovered in 1886 by geological surveyor Richard McConnell, with major quarries later opened by Charles Doolittle Walcott in 1909. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980/1981 due to its unmatched scientific value.
-508M: The Burgess Shale is a famous 508-million-year-old fossil deposit in the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia. It is globally renowned for preserving the delicate soft tissues of bizarre, early marine animals from the Cambrian explosion.
-500M: Scientists date the origins of the Kata Tjuta rock formations in Australia to at least 500 MYO. The name translates to ‘many heads,’ a description given to the 36 rock domes by the region’s native people, the Anangu—one of the oldest human societies on Earth. The towering rocks are mostly basalt, sandstone, and granite, and the distinctive rust hue is thanks to a coat of iron oxide. The colour matches that of a close neighbour, the iconic Uluru, which rises from arid Outback plains 25 kilometres east of here. Both otherworldly rock formations are part of Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in Australia’s Northern Territory. The lands in the park are sacred to the Anangu people, and both Uluru and Kata Tjuta are important religious and cultural sites.
-500M: Tunicates, also known as sea squirts, are marine animals with a long evolutionary history, potentially extending back 500 million years. Fossil evidence, like the recently discovered Megasiphon thylakos, suggests their origins are rooted in the Cambrian period. While their adult form is distinct, tunicates share a close relationship with vertebrates, particularly evident in their larval stage's notochord. Tunicates possess a notochord during their larval stage, a feature shared with vertebrates, highlighting their evolutionary connection. The earliest known tunicate fossils appear in the early Cambrian epoch, suggesting their lineage originated around this time.
-500M: Comb jellies (Ctenophora) date back roughly 500 to 700 million years, making them one of the most ancient animal groups. However, they do not live "below 7000m amsl" (above mean sea level); instead, they live in the ocean at depths down to roughly 7,200 meters below sea level (7200 bmsl, not 7200 amsl). Recent genetic and genomic studies suggest comb jellies may represent the earliest branching lineage of animals, predating dinosaurs and even sponges. Fossil evidence from formations like the Burgess Shale confirms their existence at least 500 million years ago.
-500M: Current Star Activity: Recent findings from the NASA Hubble Mission indicate that Andromeda's internal star formation has steadily slowed down over the last 500 million years as it undergoes a natural developmental lull.
-500M:[Bio] Earthworms biologically originated from aquatic annelid ancestors that first evolved over 500 million years ago during the Cambrian period. The broader phylum Annelida (segmented worms) first appeared in marine environments more than 500 million years ago.
-- Phanerozoic Eon: Paleozoic Era: Cambrian Period: Furongian Epoch (-497M to -485M) --
-497M:
-- Paleozoic Era: Ordovician period (-485.4M to -443.8M) starts --
-485M:
Diverse marine invertebrates and the earliest primitive fish.
-485M: first vertebrates with true bones.
-485.4M: Cambrian Period ends. Ordovician Period begins till -443.8M.
-485.4M: Cambrian Period ends. Ordovician Period begins till -443.8M.
-485.4M: The Cambrian is a geological period of Earth's history, part of the Paleozoic Era, that lasted from approximately 541 million to 485.4 million years ago and is characterized by the Cambrian Explosion, a period of rapid diversification of complex, multicellular life, including many major animal groups like arthropods and early chordates. During this time, organisms developed hard parts like shells, and early predators emerged.
-480M: Arandaspis is an extinct genus of jawless fish that lived in the Ordovician period, about 480 to 470 million years ago. Its remains were found in the Stairway Sandstone near Alice Springs, Australia in 1959, but it was not determined that they were the oldest known vertebrates until the late 1960s. Wikipedia Family: †Arandaspididae Scientific name: Arandaspis prionotolepis Genus: †Arandaspis; Ritchie & Gilbert-Tomlinson, 1977
Paleozoic Oxygenation Event (POE) started for next 50 million years (~450-400 MYO)
Paleozoic Oxygenation Event (POE) (~450-400 Ma): Oxygen levels increased substantially, allowing for the flourishing of complex life and animals, coinciding with land plant colonization.
-460M:[Tourism] The Copper Coast in southern Ireland runs for just a little over 15 miles, but within this seaside stretch are so many natural wonders that the area became the country's first UNESCO geopark. Created from volcanism that began some 460 million years ago, the region's geology is a fascinating blend, containing evidence of the last ice age, among other epochs. But this shore's story isn't just about shale and sandstone, as evidence of Neolithic and Iron Age settlements reveal the human side of its history. The name Copper Coast derives from the area's 19th-century mining operations—remnants of the industry can still be seen here today. See less
-450M: conodonts and echinoids.
-- Paleozoic Era: Silurian period(-443.8M to 419.2M) starts --
First freshwater fish and simple land plants appear.
-450M:[Geo][History] Journey of the Asian blocks from Gondwana to Laurasia, Late Ordovician to Early Jurassic (Significant shifts starting 450MYA, to 350MYA, 300MYA, and 200 MYA). View centred on 0°S,105°E.
-450M: The Deccan Plateau in India is considered one of the oldest plateaus on Earth, according to NextGurukul. It's a large, stable landmass in southern India, marked by its rocky terrain and volcanic rock formations called the Deccan Traps
-450M: Sharks are thought to have descended from placoderms, a group of armored fish that dominated during the Devonian period. Sharks have a long and ancient history, appearing in the fossil record as far back as 450 million years ago. They are thought to have evolved from a group of armored fish called placoderms, eventually leading to the cartilaginous fishes we know as sharks, rays, and chimaeras. Modern shark forms emerged during the Jurassic Period, around 200 million years ago.
-450M:The subclass Ammonoidea, a group that is often referred to as ammonites, first appeared about 450 million years ago. Ammonoidea includes a more exclusive group called Ammonitida, also known as the true ammonites. These animals are known from the Jurassic Period, from about 200 million years ago. Most ammonites died out at the same time as the non-avian dinosaurs, at the end of the Cretaceous Period, 66 million years ago. “We didn’t quite lose all of them at the end of the Cretaceous. A few species continued into the Palaeogene in the Western Interior Seaway before dying out,” says Zoë. (Ammonites, Spiti Shaligrams)
-450M: Some scientists suggest a past GRB may have triggered the Late Ordovician mass extinction roughly 450 million years ago.
-443.8M:[History] The Silurian (/sɪˈljʊəriːən, saɪ-/ sih-LURE-ee-ən, sy-) is a geologic period and system spanning 24.6 million years from the end of the Ordovician Period, at 443.8 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Devonian Period, 419.2 Mya.
-443.8M: Ordovician Period ends. Silurian Period begins till -419.2M. The Ordovician and Silurian are consecutive periods of the Paleozoic Era spanning roughly 485 to 419 million years ago. They mark a vital chapter in Earth's history defined by the thriving of early marine life, a massive global extinction, and the first slow crawl of life onto land.
-440M: agnathan fishes.
-440M: Ordovician-silurian Extinction, the first-ever extinction on Earth. Small marine organisms died out.-420M: Throughout history, plants developed time and time again the tree form. The first "tree" appears during the Devonian period, between 350 and 420 million years ago. This Progymnosperm is called Archaeopteris. Its wood resembles that of conifers, its trunk is thick, and it can reach up to 50 m.
Understanding how light, temperature, moisture, and soil influence tree growth. (Silvics)
Forest crops include both major timber products (wood, charcoal, fuel) and a wide range of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as medicinal plants (ginseng, black cohosh), edible products (mushrooms, berries, nuts, honey, maple syrup), decorative items (ferns, mosses), and raw materials (bamboo, rattan, resins, fiber).
-420M:Sharks belong to the class Chondrichthyes, meaning they have skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. This evolutionary lineage diverged from bony fishes over 420 million years ago.
-- Paleozoic Era: Devonian period(-419.2M to 358.9M) starts --
Known as the "Age of Fishes"; first amphibians walk on land.
-419M:The Devonian Period started, often called the "Age of Fishes", was a geologic period within the Paleozoic Era, lasting from roughly 419.2 to 358.9 million years ago. It's characterized by the diversification of fish, the emergence of tetrapods (early four-legged amphibians) and seed plants, and significant changes in Earth's climate and geography.
The Devonian is a major geologic period of the Paleozoic Era that lasted from 419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago. Known as the "Age of Fishes," it featured the rise of diverse fish species, the appearance of the first forests on land, and the first land-walking tetrapods.
Timeline: Spanned roughly 60 million years between the Silurian and Carboniferous periods.Name Origin: Named after Devon, England, where rocks from this time were first studied.Marine Life: Dominated by armored fish like placoderms (Dunkleosteus), jawless fish, and early sharks, alongside large coral reef systems.Terrestrial Life: Saw the first trees, primitive forests, wingless insects, spiders, and early amphibians (Tiktaalik) making the transition to land.Mass Extinction: Ended with a major extinction event that heavily impacted marine life and coral reefs.
[Tourism][China] Karst mountains and landscapes are not formed during a single specific epoch. Instead, the bedrock (usually limestone) is deposited over ancient periods (like the Devonian or Carboniferous), uplifted by tectonic movements in eras like the Mesozoic or Cenozoic, and then carved by erosion over millions of years spanning the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary epochs.
Bedrock Deposition: The core limestone rocks accumulated underwater during older periods, such as the Devonian and Carboniferous periods (roughly 400 to 300 million years ago).Tectonic Uplift: Plate movements pushed the seabeds above water during tectonic events in the Mesozoic and early Cenozoic eras.Karstification (Erosion): Rainwater mixed with carbon dioxide dissolved the soluble limestone. In famous regions like southern China, the major shaping of peak and tower karst accelerated heavily during the Paleogene and Neogene epochs and continued through the Pleistocene.
Some call the wispy fog that gathers around the karst peaks of Yangshuo a 'cloud sea.' To play on that analogy, the mountains here are an archipelago of stunning beauty. Among Yangshuo County's most famous sights (there are many), the soaring, spiky limestone mountains make up a range unlike any in the world. Flowing rivers and falling rain have sculpted the relatively soft limestone into a landscape resembling something out of a dream. This process of erosion begins with the carving out of caves—and there are lots of those around here, too, and they're just as stunning as the hills soaring high above them.While this landscape looks incredible from above, most people take it all in from the decks of a sightseeing boat gliding along the Li River between the towns of Yangshuo and Guilin.
Here in the Yunnan province of southwest China, the snow-capped massif known as Jade Dragon Snow Mountain (Mount Yulongxue) dominates the landscape, and in its foothills in the Blue Moon Valley, lakes and rivers take on an exquisite jade hue. (Fast fact: Copper ions in the water impart that bright colour.) Close to this stunning natural scene is a historic treasure: the Old Town of Lijiang. The Tea Horse Road, an ancient trade route, once passed through this canal-side village of stone and wooden bridges. The ancient settlement has been called the 'Venice of Asia', and the entire town was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997.
-400M: Paleo-Tethys Ocean lasted from roughly -400M to -230M. Origin lies in the rifting from Gondwana: The opening began in the Late Silurian to Early Devonian (around 400 Ma) as continental fragments, including the Hunic and Asian terranes, split away from the northern margin of the supercontinent Gondwana. Shrinking Predecessor: This rifting and seafloor spreading occurred as the older Proto-Tethys Ocean subducted and shrank northward, creating the new Paleo-Tethys basin between drifting microcontinents and Euramerica/Laurasia.
-400M:[Geo] The Finke River in central Australia is widely considered the oldest river in the world, with an estimated age of 350 to 400 million years. Predating even the dinosaurs and the uplift of the MacDonnell Ranges it cuts through (antecedent drainage). It is mostly dry and only flows significantly during rare, heavy rains.
-400M: Spiders probably evolved about 400 million years ago from thick-waisted arachnid ancestors that were not long emerged from life in water. The first definite spiders, thin-waisted arachnids with abdominal segmentation and silk producing spinnerets, are known from fossils like Attercopus fimbriungus.
-400M: The Devonian period (around 400 million years ago) is often referred to as the "Age of Fishes" due to the diversification of fish during this time. From fish, vertebrates diversified into amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
-400M:First record of late Devonian-early Carboniferous palynoflora from the Lipak Formation, Spiti Basin, Tethyan Himalaya, India, and their biostratigraphic implications (Jun 1, 2023, Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India)
Paleozoic Oxygenation Event (POE) ended after 50 million years (~450-400 MYO)
-385: The oldest confirmed insect fossil is that of a wingless, silverfish-like creature that lived about 385 million years ago. It's not until about 60 million years later, during a period of the Earth's history known as the Pennsylvanian, that insect fossils become abundant. (23-Jan-2018)
-382M: Dunkleosteus was a large, armored placoderm fish that lived 382–358 million years ago during the Late Devonian period and was an early apex predator. This heavily armored, blade-jawed fish was a powerful hunter known for its immense bite force, though its exact size is debated. Fossils of Dunkleosteus have been found worldwide.
-370M: Frogs evolved from early tetrapods, which were the first vertebrates to venture onto land. These early amphibians had features like limbs and lungs, allowing them to move and breathe both in water and on land.
-370M: Frogs originated from early amphibians during the Devonian period, approximately 370 million years ago. The earliest known proto-frog, Triadobatrachus, dates back to the Early Triassic period (around 250 million years ago). Modern frog lineages diversified after the extinction of the dinosaurs, roughly 66 million years ago.
-365M: Devonian Extinction, the second extinction on Earth. Many tropical marine species went extinct.
-- Paleozoic Era: Carboniferous period(-358.9M to 298.9M) starts --
Vast swamp forests that formed major global coal beds; early reptiles evolve.
Carboniferous Period started for next 60 million years(359-299 MYO)
Carboniferous Period (359-299 Ma): A peak in oxygen (up to 35%) due to abundant land plants, followed by drops.
-359M: Northward Drift and Subduction of Paleo Tethys Ocean: During the Carboniferous and Permian periods, the oceanic crust of the Paleo-Tethys steadily subducted northward beneath the Eurasian and Chinese blocks.
-359M:The Devonian Period ended, often called the "Age of Fishes", was a geologic period within the Paleozoic Era, lasting from roughly 419.2 to 358.9 million years ago. It's characterized by the diversification of fish, the emergence of tetrapods (early four-legged amphibians) and seed plants, and significant changes in Earth's climate and geography.
-350M:[Bio] Cockroaches are an ancient group of insects whose ancestral roots (known as "roachoids") stretch back roughly 320 to 350 million years ago to the Carboniferous period, long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth. While primitive roach-like fossils appear in the Paleozoic era (about 300–325 million years ago), genomic and molecular dating studies suggest the last common ancestor of modern living cockroach families emerged around 235 million years ago, prior to the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea.
-335M: Pangaea began to form about 335 million years ago and was fully assembled by the Early Permian (around 299 to 273 million years ago).
-350M:[silvics] Common Types of Forest Crops:
Medicinal & Culinary Herbs: Ginseng, goldenseal, ramp bulbs, black cohosh.
Mushrooms: Shiitake, oyster, maitake (hen-of-the-wood), truffles.
Fruits & Nuts: Wild blueberries, raspberries, walnuts, pecans, hazel nuts.
Syrups & Sap: Maple syrup, birch syrup.
Decorative Products: Ferns, mosses, vines, decorative branches.
Raw Materials/Fibers: Bamboo, rattan, palm leaves, cork.
Essential Oils & Resins: Pine resin, eucalyptus oil.
Wood Products: High-value hardwoods, fuel wood, charcoal.
-340M:[Geo] Meuse River (Europe): Estimated at 320–340 million years old, flowing through France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. It helped shape the region's landscape during early European mountain-building periods.
-340M:[geo] French Broad River (USA): Estimated at 320–340 million years old, running through North Carolina and Tennessee. Uniquely, it is one of the few major North American rivers that flows northward.
-335M: Pangaea, also spelled Pangea, was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, approximately 335 to 175 million years ago. It comprised all the major continental landmasses of Earth joined into a single, giant landmass. This supercontinent was surrounded by a vast ocean called Panthalassa.
-330M: Scientists have found the oldest known ancestor of octopuses – an approximately 330 million-year-old fossil unearthed in Montana. The researchers concluded the ancient creature lived millions of years earlier than previously believed, meaning that octopuses originated before the era of dinosaurs.
-325M:[geo] New River (USA): Estimated at 260–325 million years old (though some local studies suggest it could be older). It cuts directly across the Appalachian mountain chain.
-325M: Carboniferous Giants: Fossils of dragonfly-like insects, sometimes called griffinflies, from the Upper Carboniferous period (around 325 million years ago) show incredibly large wingspans, some reaching up to 750 mm (30 inches), according to Wikipedia. These were not true dragonflies but rather distant relatives. Dragonflies are ancient insects with a rich history, dating back to the Carboniferous period, roughly 325 million years ago (325 MYO). They are among the earliest flying insects and have evolved to become skilled aerial predators, with unique flight adaptations and a globally distributed presence in freshwater habitats. Dragonflies also hold a place in human culture, appearing in art, traditional medicine, and folklore across various cultures.
-320M:[Tourism][UK] Gritstone rocks: The underlying Millstone Grit sandstone was laid down as river sediments approximately 320 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. The valley formation: The physical gorge was carved out by the flowing waters of Burbage Brook over thousands of years following the last Ice Age. Padley Gorge is an ancient natural landscape with geological features roughly 320 million years old, woodland trees dating back up to 300 years, and an ecosystem tracing its lineage to prehistoric wildwoods.
-318M: Spiders originated from arachnid ancestors that transitioned from water to land, likely evolving around 400 million years ago. True spiders have been found in Carboniferous rocks from 318 to 299 million years ago, and are very similar to the most primitive surviving suborder, the Mesothelae. The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appeared in the Triassic period, before 200 million years ago.
-300M:[Geography] The Urals are a group of old fold mountains, formed about 250 to 300 million years ago during the Paleozoic Era due to the collision of tectonic plates. The Ural Mountains are a mountain range in western Russia that traditionally serves as the geographical boundary between the continents of Europe and Asia. With a length of about 2,500 kilometers (1,550 miles), these mountains contain a diverse array of economically valuable ores and minerals. The highest peak in the Urals is Mount Narodnaya (6214 ft.). The Ural Mountains are rich in various minerals and ores, including gold, platinum, nickel, chromite, and magnetite. They also contain deposits of coal, bauxite, talc, fireclay, and abrasives.
-300M:[Geography][Geology][Geo][Petrology][Mntngg] Man Pupu Nyor, which translates as “little mountain of the gods,” is a geological wonder located deep in Russia’s Ural Mountains. They’re actually seven formations ranging in heights up to 42 meters (137 feet). These awe-inspiring Seven Giants, as they’re called, reign over a flat plateau. Local legend says they were created when a shaman cast a spell, turning these evil giants into stone. Only the most intrepid travelers are likely to visit here, since they’re accessibly mainly by snowmobiles or helicopters.
-300M: There have been four super radiations of insects: beetles (evolved around 300 million years ago), flies (evolved around 250 million years ago), moths and wasps (evolved around 150 million years ago). These four groups account for the majority of described species. The housefly (Musca domestica) is a fly of the subord er Cyclorrhapha. It possibly originated in the Middle East, and spread around the world as a
-270M:[Geography][Geology][Geo][Petrology][Mntngg] Shilin, which means “Stone Forest” in Chinese, is a set of karst formations in southwest China. The stones jut from the earth similar to the way a stalagmite does in a cave. These stones are thought to be 270 million years old. The area was an ocean floor and the flow of water created the majestic pinnacles. The stone forest receives over 2 million visitors a year.
commensal of humans.
-300M: Silverfish are ancient insects, with fossils suggesting a lineage dating back over 300 million years to the Paleozoic Era. The precise origin of silverfish is unknown, but they are believed to have originated in an ancient, warm, humid, tropical region, likely in the Paleozoic Era. These primitive, wingless insects are now found worldwide, having adapted to diverse environments and coexisting with humans for centuries.
-300M:[tour][de] Still one of Central Europe's largest protected forest areas, this sweeping tract of wild land was once even more vast: The Bavarian Forest is a remnant of the ancient Hercynian Forest that stretched from the Carpathian Mountains to northeastern France. Above the dense canopy of this forest rise the Great Arber and the Great Rachel, the region's highest peaks. And at the heart of this wilderness lies Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany's first national park, founded in 1970. Together with the Czech Republic's Bohemian Forest across the border, it forms one of Europe's largest continuous woodland regions. Geology: Formed roughly 300 million years ago during mountain-building periods that created the Bohemian Massif.Early Settlements: Dense canopies limited large-scale human settlement, though sparse Bronze Age artifacts indicate early presence.Medieval Industry: From the Middle Ages through the 19th century, extensive glassworks and logging heavily exploited the woodlands, favoring fast-growing spruce over native fir and deciduous trees.
-- Paleozoic Era: Permian period(-298.9M to 251.9M) starts --
Dominated by the supercontinent Pangaea and ended by a massive extinction.
-299M:
-290M: For years, paleontologists did not know what to make of this fossil from the ancient shark Helicoprion that lived 290 million years ago. It was proposed to be a weapon at the tip of the nose, an unusual dorsal fin, or a defensive tail adornment. Research revealed that it is actually a spiral of teeth (tooth whorl) that was used like a buzzsaw to grab and chop food.
-280M:[Bio] True terrestrial adaptations (such as specialized gizzards and changes to the digestive and reproductive systems) arose during the late Paleozoic (-280M) or early Mesozoic eras. Continental drift and the breakup of Pangaea (roughly 180–200 million years ago) directly influenced early earthworm diversification and global distribution.
Carboniferous Period ended after 60 million years (359-299 MYO)
-260M: The oldest known soft-shelled turtles and sea turtles appeared during the Early Cretaceous. Tortoises originated in Asia during the Eocene. A late surviving group of stem-turtles, the Meiolaniidae, survived in Australasia into the Pleistocene and Holocene. Eunotosaurus africanus, the earliest known turtle, lived 260 million years ago. Eunotosaurus was toothed, and its midsection contained nine elongated trunk vertebrae, nine pairs of broad T-shaped dorsal ribs, and five pairs of gastralia (ventrally located abdominal ribs).
While Eunotosaurus dates back about 260 million years, the first fully shelled turtles appeared around 210 million years ago.
-250M:Trilobites were marine animals and part of a group known as arthropods. Arthropoda is the largest phylum of invertebrate animals and includes several groups you may recognise such as insects, spiders and crustaceans.
-250M: The discovery of Triadobatrachus in Madagascar provides evidence of a transitional form between early amphibians and frogs. It possessed some frog-like characteristics but also retained primitive features like a longer vertebral column.
It was first discovered in the 1930s, when Adrien Massinot, near the village of Betsiaka in northern Madagascar, found an almost complete skeleton in the Induan Middle Sakamena Formation of the Sakamena Group. The animal must have fossilized soon after its death, because all bones lay in their natural anatomical position. Only the anterior part of the skull and the ends of the limbs were missing. This fossil was initially described under the name Protobatrachus massinoti by the French paleontologist Jean Piveteau in 1936.- Much more detailed description were published more recently.
-250M: Permian-triassic Extinction, the third and the largest extinction on Earth, when perhaps 95 percent of all species went extinct.
-250M: The galactic year, also known as a cosmic year, the approximate time it takes for the Solar System, to complete one full orbit around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is estimated to be around 225 to 250 million Earth years. Approximately 20 galactic years have passed for the Earth and Sun since their formation, with the Sun and Earth having completed about 20 orbits around the center of the Milky Way galaxy. The Sun travels at an incredible speed of approximately 220 km/sec or 483,000 miles per hour (792,000 km/h) to complete its orbit in this timeframe.
The Mesozoic Era (Trissac - 50M years; Jurassic for 56M years and Cretaceous for 80M years)
The Mesozoic Era (252–66 million years ago), or "Age of Reptiles," was a 186-million-year period featuring the rise, dominance, and extinction of dinosaurs, the breakup of Pangaea, and a warm global climate. Divided into the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods, it saw the emergence of birds, mammals, and flowering plants before ending with a mass extinction event.
The Astilbe flower is also known as false spirea, false goat's beard, or feather flower (बुढो ओखती, ठूलो औषधी Budho okhati, Thulo ausadhi) and they are said to have the meaning of “I will be waiting for you' or 'I'll still be waiting,” symbolizing patience and dedication to a loved one.
Lavender. Violets are not the only purple flower linked to the queer community. Into the 1930s and 40s, lavender became increasingly associated with gay men and lesbian women.
False spiraea (genus Sorbaria, particularly Sorbaria sorbifolia) is a hardy, deciduous, colony-forming shrub known for its feathery pinnate leaves and large, plume-like white flower clusters in summer. Often used for erosion control, it spreads vigorously via suckers and is prized for its adaptability, resilience, and early spring foliage. Symbolism: Often symbolizes resilience, adaptability, new beginnings, and growth due to its fast growth rate and ability to thrive in tough conditions.
The Mesozoic Era (approx. 252–66 million years ago) was the "Age of Reptiles," characterized by the dominance of dinosaurs, the breakup of the Pangaea supercontinent, and a warm climate without polar ice. Lasting from the Triassic through the Cretaceous periods, this era saw the evolution of mammals, birds, and flowering plants, concluding with the mass extinction event caused by an asteroid impact.
Key Aspects of the Mesozoic Era
Timeline: Began 252 million years ago after the Permian extinction and ended 66 million years ago with the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction.
Periods:
Triassic (252–201 Ma): Life began to recover, with the first dinosaurs and true mammals emerging; supercontinent Pangaea remained intact.
Jurassic (201–145 Ma): Dinosaurs dominated; Pangaea began breaking apart, creating a more humid, tropical climate.
Cretaceous (145–66 Ma): Peak dinosaur diversity, the emergence of flowering plants (angiosperms), and continuing continental fragmentation.
Climate & Geography: Generally warm with no polar ice caps. Large deserts existed in the Triassic, but conditions became more tropical as oceans widened.
Dominant Life: Reptiles dominated land (dinosaurs), air (pterosaurs), and sea (plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs).
Extinction Event: A massive asteroid hit the Yucatan Peninsula 66 million years ago, causing severe environmental changes and killing off all non-bird dinosaurs and 75% of species.
The River Thames (including its upper section the Isis), the River Severn, and the River Wye had their underlying bedrock and regional landforms originate during the Mesozoic Era (Jurassic to Cretaceous periods, 170–70 million years ago), but their modern river valleys and courses were shaped and finalized during the Quaternary Period—specifically the Pleistocene Epoch and the end of the last Ice Age in the Holocene Epoch (roughly 15,000 to 450,000 years ago).
The Atacama Desert in northern Chile - Development of Aridity and the Andes / Subtropical Climate Belt: The region's stable position within the dry subtropical climate belt provided baseline aridity since the Mesozoic era.
Triassic started for next 51 million years (251.9–201.4 MYO)
Triassic (251.9–201.4 Ma) marking Earth's recovery after the devastating Permian extinction, featuring Pangea and early archosaurs. Triassic & Jurassic Periods: Oxygen levels dipped again (around 15%), similar to the early Proterozoic but higher than the Mid-Proterozoic low.
-251M:The Triassic is a geological period and system within the Mesozoic Era, spanning from the end of the Permian Period (251.902 million years ago) to the beginning of the Jurassic Period (201.4 million years ago). It's characterized by significant evolutionary events, including the rise of the first dinosaurs, mammals, and other important vertebrate groups.
-250M:[Geo] Opening of Neo-Tethys: By the Late Permian (approx. 250 Ma), a new rift developed along Gondwana's northern edge, creating the Cimmerian continent, which drifted north and paved the way for the opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean in its place.
-247M:[Tourism][EU] The rock foundation of the Big Pasture Plateau (Velika planina) in the Kamnik-Savinja Alps of Slovenia formed primarily during the Triassic period (specifically the Middle Triassic epoch, about 247 to 237 million years ago).Geological FormationRock Composition: The plateau consists largely of Middle Triassic marine carbonates, including the Lower Serla Dolomite, the Velika planina member, and the younger Ladinian Schlern Formation.Karst Landform: These calcareous and dolomitic rock layers accumulated in ancient shallow marine environments before tectonic compression uplifted the region into an alpine karst landscape shaped by sinkholes and erosion.
-247M:[Tourism][EU] A thick layer of snow blankets the hills and cloaks the evergreen trees of northern Slovenia's Big Pasture Plateau. Here, rocky karst terrain gives way to lush alpine pastureland, all of it dotted by spruce and pine trees. This area of the Kamnik–Savinja Alps has been a place where people gather since Neolithic times, and was used for seasonal cattle grazing throughout the medieval period. Faithful reconstructions of herdsman's huts cluster in the Velika Planina settlement on the plateau, and are a popular attraction, especially in the verdant spring and summer. What's to do in winter? The answer is obvious: lots and lots of skiing.
-240M:[geo] Ancient Components (~240 Million Years Old): This estimate refers to the river's earliest ancestral path and tectonic history. It is believed that early geological predecessors of the river began draining the landscape during the Triassic period, potentially cutting through even older mountains.
-240M: The 240-million-year-old fossil, Megachirella wachtleri, is the most ancient ancestor of all modern lizards and snakes, known as squamates.
-230M: Final Closure of Paleo-Tethys Ocean: The collision of the Cimmerian terranes, Qiangtang, and other continental blocks with Laurasia during the Middle to Late Triassic (ca. 240–230 Ma) crushed the remaining basin, leading to final closure and the Indosinian orogeny. Remnants of its ancient floor are now found as suture zones in mountain belts across Turkey, Iran, Tibet, and China.
-230M: Turtles originated roughly 230 million years ago during the Triassic Period, predating dinosaurs and other modern reptiles. The earliest known turtle ancestor, Eunotosaurus africanus, lived about 260 million years ago and is believed to have been a digging reptile with broad, flattened ribs that may have been a precursor to the turtle shell. While the exact evolutionary path is still being researched, turtles are thought to have evolved from diapsid reptiles, and their shell developed over time through the broadening of ribs and vertebrae, and the formation of osteoderms. Tortoises share a common ancestry with turtles and are believed to have evolved from a group of terrestrial and freshwater turtles. Tortoises, as a group, have been around for over 220 million years, coexisting with dinosaurs and representing one of the oldest reptile groups.
-235M:[cinema] Episode 1: "Rise" (Triassic Period): Covers the origins of dinosaurs, beginning 235 million years ago, showcasing how small ancestors survived in a chaotic climate alongside early reptilian rivals. The Dinosaurs (released March 6, 2026, on Netflix) is a four-part nature documentary miniseries from Amblin Television and Silverback Films, executive-produced by Steven Spielberg and narrated by Morgan Freeman. The series uses a "rise, reign, and fall" framework rather than a strictly encyclopedic approach, focusing on the evolutionary story of dinosaur success and failure over 165 million years. The series is structured into four 45-48 minute episodes, each tackling a different era of the Mesozoic.
-235M:[Bio] the last common ancestor of modern living cockroach families emerged around 235 million years ago, prior to the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea.
-225M: first Dinosaurs.
-225:225 million years ago (Ma) India was a large island situated off the Australian coast and separated from Asia by the Tethys Ocean. The supercontinent Pangea began to break up 200 Ma and India started a northward drift towards Asia. 80 Ma India was 6,400 km south of the Asian continent but moving towards it at a rate of between 9 and 16 cm per year. At this time Tethys Ocean floor would have been subducting northwards beneath Asia and the plate margin would have been a Convergent oceanic-continental one just like the Andes today.
Main Rock Types in Spiti - Shale: Dark grey to black layers, famously known as the Spiti Shale, which holds many old fossils.Limestone and Dolomite: Hard, layered rock types that form high cliffs and display clear folds from earth movements.Sandstone and Quartzite: Tough, grainy rocks seen in formations like the Muth and Giumal beds. Most users on Facebook agree that you can easily find sea fossils like ammonites in places like Langza and Hikkim because the rocks preserve the old ocean floor.The rocks show clear lines and bends (called anticlines and synclines) because there are no trees or thick soil hiding the mountain sides.
-217M:[Bio][wildlife] Mosquitoes (family Culicidae) emerged approximately 217–226 million years ago (MYA).They likely appeared during the Triassic period, originating on the southern supercontinent Gondwana. They evolved from ancestral Diptera (true flies), likely developing their long, specialized proboscis for feeding. Mosquitoes originated over 200 million years ago during the Triassic period, evolving from ancestors resembling modern crane flies. Initially nectar feeders, they evolved into specialized blood-feeders by the Cretaceous period, surviving multiple extinctions to diversify into 3,700+ species. Modern human-specialist mosquitoes, like Aedes aegypti, emerged roughly 5,000 years ago, driven by urbanization and environmental shifts in Africa.
-215M:[Disaster] Manicouagan Crater: Located in Quebec, Canada; about 100 km (62 mi) in diameter, formed roughly 215 million years ago.
-210M: Triassic-jurassic Extinction, the fourth extinction on Earth. The extinction of other vertebrate species on land allowed dinosaurs to flourish.
-209M: Genetic and fossil evidence indicates the common ancestor of all living terrestrial earthworms lived over 209 million years ago, placing their origins around the time of early dinosaurs and mammals.
-202:
-201M: The Jurassic period starts and spanned from approximately 200 to 145 million years ago.
-201M: The Early Jurassic epoch spans from approximately 201.3 to 174.1 million years ago. It immediately follows the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event, a period of significant faunal turnover. The Early Jurassic is characterized by the initial breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and the diversification of life following the extinction event.
-201M:[geo][greece] The Ionian Sea basin formed during the Mesozoic era (specifically in the late Early to Middle Jurassic period) as a short-lived oceanic basin.Tectonic FormationRifting Phase: The basin began with Late Triassic to Early Jurassic rifting, which happened at the same time as the opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean.Ocean-Tethys Interaction: Geologists view the deep basin as a remnant piece of oceanic crust created where two ancient spreading oceans—the Central Atlantic and the Neo-Tethys—interacted.Crust Type: Modern seismic data shows that the deep basin is floored by normal-thickness oceanic crust underneath a thick layer of sediments.
[tour][greece] Vying for the title of the most beautiful archipelago on Earth, the Ionian Islands lie off the northwestern coast of mainland Greece. And while it would be difficult picking the most picturesque island in the chain, Corfu is certainly up there. It's celebrated for its rich culture, history, and architecture, as well as its near-mythical scenic splendour. Here, at the northwest tip of the island, is a fine example of Corfiot shore meeting Ionian Sea, and the combination is breathtaking. Cape Drastis looks less like a beach or peninsula and more a collection of rock sculptures lapped by seawater. Steep slopes, sea caves, and green groundcover make this cape catnip for photographers.
Triassic ended after 51 million years (251.9–201.4 MYO)
Jurassic started for next 56 million years (201.4–145 MYO)
-201.3M: Jurassic, the middle period of the Mesozoic Era started and marked the end of 50M year-long Triassic period (-251.9 to -201.36)
Pangea supercontinent split started for next 25 million years (200–175 MYO)
-200M:[Geo] Pangea began to break apart about 175 to 200 million years ago during the early Jurassic period due to shifting tectonic plates driven by mantle convection currents. Pangea started splitting into two massive landmasses: Laurasia in the north (comprising North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana in the south (comprising South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India). Later a rift zone formed between Africa, North America, and South America, creating the Atlantic Ocean as magma welled up through the crust.
-200M: The volcanic and tectonic rift zone between Africa, North America, and South America began forming during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic periods, approximately 200 million years ago. Initial Rifting and Magmatism: A three-pronged (triple junction) fissure and extensive volcanic activity developed around 201–200 million years ago, tied to the massive magmatic event known as the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP). Breakup of Pangea: This crustal weakness split the supercontinent Pangea, separating North America from Africa and eventually leading to the opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean. South America Separation: While the northern rift with North America initiated around 200 million years ago, the specific opening and rifting between South America and Africa occurred slightly later, progressing actively into the Early Cretaceous around 140 million years ago.
-200M:[geo] Iguazu Falls (Argentina/Brazil): The massive volcanic basalt blocks that form the base of these 275 distinct drops were molded by tectonic activity roughly 200 million years ago.
Mammals
-200M: The earliest confirmed modern sharks (Selachii) are known from the Early Jurassic period, around 200 million years ago. Some evidence suggests that true shark fossils may extend even further back, possibly to the Permian period. Sharks have survived five mass extinction events, demonstrating their adaptability and resilience. These events have allowed them to diversify and occupy new ecological niches, leading to the variety of shark species we see today. The Jurassic period saw the rise of many modern shark groups, and by the end of the Cretaceous period, all eight extant shark orders had appeared.
-180M:[Geo] Gondwana started to split-up. It was a supercontinent that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (-550M) and began to break up during the Jurassic (-180M).
-180M:[Geo] East Gondwana split from Africa and South America. India, Madagascar, Australia, and Antarctica (together forming East Gondwana) detached from Africa about 180 million years ago during the Jurassic period. India, Madagascar, Australia, and Antarctica detached and moved toward their current locations, with India eventually colliding with Asia to form the Himalayas.
-180M: Fossilized Belemnite from the Toarcian, Lozère (France)
-180M:[Geography] Gondwana was a supercontinent that formed around 500-600 million years ago and lasted for approximately 450-500 million years before beginning its breakup about 180 million years ago. The continent consisted of modern-day India, Australia, Antarctica, Africa, South America, and Arabia, among others, and was a major landmass during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras before it eventually broke apart into the separate continents we see today.
-175M: The Middle Jurassic epoch falls within the broader Jurassic Period, spanning from approximately 174.1 to 163.5 million years ago. It is the second of three epochs within the Jurassic, following the Early Jurassic and preceding the Late Jurassic. This period is characterized by significant geological and biological events, including the continued breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and the diversification of life, particularly dinosaurs.
-175M: Snakes are believed to have evolved from lizards, likely during the Jurassic period, with the earliest fossils dating back to the Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous. They are thought to have originated on land, possibly from burrowing or aquatic lizards. Over time, snakes adapted by losing their legs, elongating their bodies, and developing flexible skulls to swallow prey whole.
-170M:Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods (170–70 Million Years Ago): Basic uplift and limestone/chalk formation in the Cotswolds and Welsh borders created the high ground and slopes that feed the sources of the Thames, Severn, and Wye.
-160M: The Narmada River is widely considered the oldest river in India. Geologically, it's believed to be older than the Himalayas and even the Ganga. The Narmada flows through a rift valley, a geological feature formed during the breakup of the Pangea supercontinent, which dates back about 160 million years, according to the Sanctuary Nature Foundation.
-160M:[geo] Baatara Gorge Waterfall (Lebanon): Often cited by geologists for its ancient limestone structure, this waterfall drops 250 meters into a pothole behind three natural bridges that took 160 million years to slowly erode.
-150M: Chinese researchers have discovered over 4,300 dinosaur footprints in the northern Chinese province of Zhangjiakou in Hebei. This discovery is touted to be a historic find in the field of paleoethology. The 9,000 square meter-sized imprints were created between the Jurassic and Cretaceous eras, or roughly 150 million years ago. (Apr 2020; Jul 2022)
-150M:[History] The first ocean floor formed between Madagascar and Africa c. 150 MYA and between India and Madagascar 70 MYA.
-150M:It has been adapting, evolving for 150 million years 14 000 species they are nearly everywhere thriving. This is the story of solenopsis Invicta for 80 years it has been on a ceaseless march across the United States racking up six billion dollars every year in crop damage equipment repair and Pest Control conquering 340 million acres in 13 states and it's still on the Move globally now scientists are cracking their ancient secrets to success and survival we knew that we could speculate all day but to fully understand the ants we decided to bring them into the lab and obtain visual data.
-150M:[Tour] The Atacama Desert in northern Chile is approximately 150 million years old and stands as the oldest continuously hyperarid desert on Earth. Seabed Beginnings: Around 150 million years ago during the late Jurassic period, the region that is now the Atacama was covered by the Pacific Ocean.Plate Subduction: The Pacific Ocean tectonic plate began subducting (sliding) beneath the South American plate roughly 195 million years ago.Land Emergence: This subduction melted underground rock, causing volcanic activity and gradually forcing the land to thicken, rise, and lift out of the sea. The Atacama Desert is the oldest and driest non-polar desert on Earth, stretching 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) along the Pacific coast of northern Chile. Extreme Dryness: Some central areas have gone hundreds of years without a single drop of rain.Stargazing Hub: High altitude, clear skies, and zero light pollution make it a global astronomy capital.Base Camp: The town of San Pedro de Atacama serves as the main tourist starting point.
-145M:[Geography] The Black Sea Basin began forming in the Cretaceous period (around 145-66 million years ago) as a back-arc basin but its present form and connection to the Mediterranean emerged much later. The modern Black Sea's connection to the Mediterranean was established around 6,500 to 7,500 years ago, transforming it from a large freshwater lake into the salty sea it is today. -145M:Mediterranean/Middle Eastern: Features hummus, falafel, and kebabs.
-145M (to -65M): Recent geological studies suggest that for millions of years the Amazon River used to flow in the opposite direction - from east to west. Eventually the Andes Mountains formed, blocking its flow to the Pacific Ocean, and causing it to switch directions to its current mouth in the Atlantic Ocean.
-145M: The Late Jurassic epoch spanned from approximately 163.5 to 145 million years ago, marking the final stage of the Jurassic period. During this time, the supercontinent Pangaea continued to break apart, forming Laurasia and Gondwana. Major dinosaur groups like sauropods and theropods thrived, and the first birds are thought to have appeared.
-142M: The Australian crater.
Jurassic saw dinosaurs truly dominate, with Pangea breaking apart and lush forests flourishing, leading to massive sauropods and early birds.
Life: Dinosaurs diversified and became the dominant land animals (giant sauropods, theropods like Allosaurus). First birds (like Archaeopteryx) appeared.
Climate: Wetter and warmer than the Triassic, supporting vast forests.
Jurassic ended after 56 million years (201.4–145 MYO)
Cretaceous started for next 79 million years (145–66 MYO)
The Cretaceous Period (approx. 145–66 million years ago) was the final, longest period of the Mesozoic Era, characterized by warm climates, high sea levels, the dominance of dinosaurs, and the rise of flowering plants. It ended with a mass extinction event that wiped out the dinosaurs, ending the Age of Reptiles.
-144M:
-140M:[Geo] South America Separation: While the northern rift with North America initiated around 200 million years ago, the specific opening and rifting between South America and Africa occurred slightly later, progressing actively into the Early Cretaceous around 140 million years ago.
-140M:[Geo] 140 to 130 Million Years Ago: India and Madagascar separated from Antarctica and Australia.
-130M:Studies of the similarity of the DNA in wasps and bees suggest that the first bees appeared about 130 million years ago, 50 million years before the first known fossil bee, and probably very shortly after the first flowers evolved in the Cretaceous.
-130M: Giumal Formation (Giumal Sandstone/Shale)Age: Early Cretaceous (approx. 130 to 100 million years ago).Lithology: Calcareous sandstones, glauconitic sandstones, quartzites, and dark shales with limestone lenses.Stratigraphic Position: Overlies the dark carbonaceous Spiti Shales and sits below the Chikkim Shales.Environment: Deposited in a shallow marine shelf environment along the northern Indian continental margin. (Muth and Giumal beds of Spiti)
-128M:The original snake ancestor was a nocturnal, stealth-hunting predator that had tiny hind limbs with ankles and toes, researchers said. WASHINGTON: The world's first snakes evolved on land, and not in the sea, about 128 million years ago and had tiny hind limbs, ankles and toes, a new study has found. Consequently, snakes (and some other cold-blooded animals) go to sleep for a few weeks up to 4 months. This is very similar to hibernation but is called brumation which is how cold-blooded animals survive the weather. Remember that only warm-blooded animals hibernate. Snakes brumate in their dens or hibernaculum. It depends on health, nutrition, genetics, and some other things. If a snake has good health and gets nutrition then there are chances that it may live for 100 years. The wild snakes die soon. The lifespan of a captivated snake is more than a wild snake.
-126M: At c. 126 MYA the Falkland Plateau began to slide past southern Africa and the Paraná-Etendeka LIP had opened the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At c. 83 MYA the South Atlantic was fully opened and the Romanche Fracture Zone was forming near the Equator.
-120M: The first ocean floor formed between India and Antarctica c. 120 Ma. The Kerguelen LIP began to form the Ninety East ridge c. 80 MYA. The Indian and Australian plates merged c. 40 MYA.
-120M: Travelers who are into geology will enjoy a visit to Organ Pipes near Twyfelfontein, Namibia. The dolerite columns that line the sides of a small valley resemble a pipe organ, though slightly more unusually shaped, such as triangles and hexagons, and date back 120 million years when volcanic activity was the norm. Organ Pipes makes a good stop over between Twyfelfontein, with its ancient rock engravings, and Burnt Mountain, known for its piles of blackened limestone.
-115M:[silvics] Aquatic Plants - Kumudini & Neelkamal: Native to tropical Asia and Africa. Water lilies are considered "basal angiosperms," meaning they are among the absolute earliest lineages of flowering plants to diverge from gymnosperms over 115 million years ago.
-113M: Previously submerged dinosaur footprints have been uncovered in US' Texas after a river dried up due to a drought. A representative of the Dinosaur Valley State Park said that the footprints belonged to an Acrocanthosaurus, a relative of the Tyrannosaurus Rex that stood 15 feet high. (Aug 24, 2022).
-110M: All modern sea turtles arose from a common ancestor about 110 million years ago. For a long time, the oldest known fossil sea turtle was Santanachelys gaffneyi. The fossil was found and described in 1988 in eastern Brazil and dates back to the Early Cretaceous Period.
-100M: The Earliest Ants. Ants evidently arose during the Cretaceous period at somewhat more than 100 million years ago. Their earliest known fossils fall into two groups. The first is the very primitive Mesozoic subfamily Sphecomyrminae.17-May-2005
-100M:[Geography] Over 100 Million Years Ago, Olympus Mons Had a Massive Landslide. While the surface of Mars looks relatively unchanging now, it wasn’t always so. The tallest mountain in the Solar System is Olympus Mons, a giant shield volcano on Mars that reaches 21.9 km (13.6 miles) high, 2.5 times higher than Mount Everest here on Earth. Ancient lava flows surround the volcanic caldera, evidence of an active time. (ESA, August 24, 2023 by Nancy Atkinson)
-100M:[geo] Victoria Falls (Zambia/Zimbabwe): Locally named Mosi-oa-Tunya, the Zambezi River has been carving through its distinct zig-zagging basalt fissures for at least 3 to 100 million years.
-100M: Butterflies originated from nocturnal, herbivorous moth ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, likely in the North or Central Americas. They diversified alongside the evolution of flowering plants, with the two families Riodinidae and Lycaenidae evolving around 76 million years ago. Their evolution is closely linked to the rise of angiosperms, as both adult butterflies and caterpillars feed on flowering plants.
-100M:[Tourism][UK] The chalk material of the White Cliffs of Dover formed 70 to 100 million years ago during the Cretaceous period, while the physical cliff faces above the water were exposed much later, roughly 500,000 years ago or less. [Formation of the Chalk] Tiny sea algae: Trillions of microscopic marine algae called coccolithophores lived, died, and sank to the bottom of a shallow tropical sea. Pressure and hardening: Over millions of years, the layers of their white calcium carbonate shells piled up and compressed into soft chalk rock. Uplift: Earth's tectonic movements later pushed the sea floor upward, exposing the massive chalk deposit above sea level. [Creation of the Cliffs] Ice Age erosion: Massive glacial meltwaters and catastrophic floods carved out the English Channel and cut away the land. Exposed face: This heavy erosion left behind the steep, striking white vertical drop seen facing the sea today. Microfossils: Trillions of microscopic, shield-like coccolithophore algae plates and tiny shelled foraminifera form 98% of the chalk rock itself. Sea Urchins (Echinoids): The most common find. Heart-shaped Micraster and rounded Echinocorys fossils are often found preserved as hard, dark flint moulds inside the chalk. Shelled Invertebrates: Ancient bivalves (clams and oysters like Inoceramus), brachiopods, and sea lily (crinoid) stems are widespread throughout the layers. Ammonites and Belemnites: Spiral-shelled ammonites and bullet-shaped internal "guards" of squid-like belemnites represent the active swimming predators of the Cretaceous sea. Sharks and Large Predators: Fossilised teeth from lamniform sharks and massive crushing tooth plates from the prehistoric ray Ptychodus are frequently discovered.Dinosaur Footprints: In 2021, stormy conditions near the cliffs exposed rare 110-million-year-old footprints from ankylosaurs, theropods, and ornithopods, showing the last dinosaurs to walk in Britain. [Modern Wildlife on the Cliffs] The clifftops and chalk grasslands host unique plants and animals that thrive in the harsh, salty wind:Chalk Grassland Flora: The thin, lime-rich soil supports rare wild orchids (like the early spider orchid) and wild sea cabbage.Specialised Butterflies: The abundance of chalk-loving plants attracts vibrant insect populations, including the rare Adonis blue and chalkhill blue butterflies.Nesting Birds: The vertical rock faces provide highly secure nesting spots for marine birds like fulmars, kittiwakes, and peregrine falcons.
-100M:[silvics] Gulmohar: Native to the dry deciduous forests of Madagascar. It belongs to the legume family (Fabaceae), which evolved from primitive rose-like ancestors (Rosids) during the Cretaceous period around 60 to 100 million years ago.
Kadamb: Native to South and Southeast Asia (including India, Bangladesh, and Indonesia). It belongs to the coffee family (Rubiaceae), which shares a common ancestor with early asterids.
Parijat: Native to South Asia (sub-Himalayan region and Central India). It belongs to the Oleaceae (olive) family, which shares a common evolutionary line with early mints and snapdragons (Lamiales).
Javakusum: Native to East Asia (likely China and subtropical Asia). It is an ancient hybrid complex of wild mallow species (Malvaceae) that evolved from ancestral forest shrubs.
Kaner: Native to a wide band stretching from the Mediterranean region to Northwest India. It belongs to the Apocynaceae (dogbane) family, which evolved specialized milky latex sap as an evolutionary defense mechanism against herbivores.
Mogra: Native to South and Southeast Asia (specifically the eastern Himalayas and India). Like Parijat, it evolved from early Oleaceae ancestors and was selectively bred by humans over centuries to enhance its fragrance and petal count.
Magnolias are one of the oldest flowering plant lineages on Earth, with fossil records dating back roughly 95 to 100 million years to the Cretaceous period, long before bees evolved. More details on the Magnolia line, which evolved before bees? Ancient Timeline: They predate most other modern flowering plants and survived major extinction events.Beetle Pollination: Because bees did not exist when magnolias first appeared, they evolved tough, rigid carpels and tepals (undifferentiated petals and sepals) to withstand the weight and mandibles of pollinating beetles.Naming: The genus is named after the 17th-century French botanist Pierre Magnol (1638-1715). Original Range: Magnolias originally spanned a much wider northern hemisphere, including parts of Europe, North America, and Asia.Continental Shift & Ice Ages: Continental drift split their populations, and subsequent glaciation wiped out European populations.Modern Native Regions: Today, they feature a disjunct native distribution centered primarily in East and Southeast Asia (such as China and Vietnam) with secondary strongholds in North, Central, and South America and the West Indies.
-95M:[silvics] Champa: Native to South Asia and Southeast Asia (for Magnolia champaca) and Central America/Caribbean (for Plumeria). Magnolias are among the most primitive flowering plants on Earth, having evolved 95 million years ago before bees even existed; they were originally pollinated by beetles.
-90M:[Geo] India split away from Madagascar (90 to 84 myo).
-86M:[silvics] The plant family Oleaceae (the olive and lilac family) originated approximately 86 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous epoch, with Tropical Asia identified as its primary ancestral dispersal source.Evolutionary and Geographic HistoryAge: Phylogenetic studies show the family emerged roughly 86 million years ago.Dispersal: Tropical Asia served as the main geographic center from which ancestral lines spread.Diversification: Over millions of years, the family expanded subcosmopolitously, adapting to tropical, subtropical, and temperate environments across the globe.Modern Distribution: Today, Oleaceae includes roughly 24 to 29 genera and 700 species found on every continent except Antarctica. Common members include the olive (Olea), ash (Fraxinus), lilac (Syringa), and jasmine (Jasminum).
-85M:[Anthro] Primates originated around 55 to 85 million years ago from small, tree-dwelling mammal ancestors. Their evolutionary timeline splits into monkeys, baboons, and apes (including orangutans and bonobos) through distinct divergence points driven by geographic separation and environmental adaptation.
-80M:Crystalline Basement: The region sits upon the East European Platform, where ancient metamorphic rocks lie 1.5 to 2.5 kilometers deep. Sedimentary Layers: Over hundreds of millions of years, shallow seas repeatedly covered central Russia, depositing thick layers of Carboniferous limestones, Jurassic clays, and Cretaceous sediments. The last marine retreat occurred roughly 80 million years ago. (Russia, Moscow River)
-75M:[silvics] Moulshree: Native to the coastal forests of South and Southeast Asia. It is a member of the Sapotaceae family, an ancient lineage of flowering plants that diverged during the Late Cretaceous period.
-75M:[bio] Raptors, or birds of prey, evolved from carnivorous theropod dinosaurs during the Mesozoic era, with specialized features appearing over the last 50–75 million years. The term stems from the Latin rapio ("to seize or take by force"), defining birds like hawks, eagles, and owls that hunt using sharp talons and hooked beaks.
-70M: Oviraptor's egg nest. 31 eggs laid in spiral formation.
-70M: Timings on the diagram therefore correspond accurately to the known position of the Indian continent over the past 71 Ma but not the timing of collision between the continents which began around 50 Ma.
-70M:[bio] Penguins originated from flying seabirds near New Zealand and Antarctica around 60–70 million years ago, shortly after the dinosaur extinction. Early ancestors were flightless, large-bodied, and thrived in warm waters, with modern penguins evolving over millions of years to adapt to cold environments and oceanic lifestyles.
-70M: The broader Hawaiian archipelago began forming much earlier in the Tertiary period (around 70 million years ago) as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over a stationary volcanic hotspot.
-- Cenozoic Era (-66M to the present day) --
The Cenozoic Era is Earth's current geological era, spanning the last 66 million years from the extinction of the dinosaurs to the present day. Often called the Age of Mammals, it features the rise of mammals, flowering plants, and human life.
Continental Drift: Continents moved into their modern geographic positions.
Mountain Building: Collision of tectonic plates formed major ranges like the Himalayas and the Alps.
Climate Shifts: Shifted from an initially warm global climate to polar ice caps and periodic glacial ages.
-- Paleogene Period (66 to 23 million years ago) --
Early warm climate, rapid mammal and flowering plant diversification.
----------------------------------------------------- The K-Pg extinction --------------------------------------------
66MYO
-66M:The Cenozoic Era is Earth's current geological era, spanning the last 66 million years from the extinction of the dinosaurs to the present day. Often called the Age of Mammals, it features the rise of mammals, flowering plants, and human life.
-66M:Ammonites were shelled cephalopods that died out about 66 million years ago. Fossils of them are found all around the world, sometimes in very large concentrations. They were coiled-up snakes that had been turned to stone, earning them the nickname ‘snakestones’. But ammonites weren’t reptiles – they were ocean-dwelling molluscs, specifically cephalopods. However, it’s estimated that over 10,000 species of ammonite – possibly even over 20,000 – have been discovered. The largest known species of ammonite is Parapuzosia seppenradensis from the Late Cretaceous. The largest specimen found is 1.8 metres in diameter but is also incomplete. If it were complete, this ammonite’s total diameter could have been from 2.5–3.5 metres. Ichthyosaurs were among the marine animals that would have preyed on ammonites.
-66M: Purgatorius is the genus of the four extinct species believed to be the earliest example of a primate or a proto-primate, a primatomorph precursor to the Plesiadapiformes, dating to as old as 66 million years ago.
-66M: On one fine springtime of the year, the fifth mass extinction occurred, when asteroid Chicxulub (named after present-day town of Chicxulub in Mexico) wiped off the dinosaurs from the face of the Earth. The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event, also known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary (K–T) extinction, was a mass extinction of some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth that occurred over a geologically short period of time.
-66M:[wildlife] Following the extinction of dinosaurs and marine reptiles (~66 Ma), ancestors of penguins began exploiting marine niches, losing the ability to fly to become efficient divers.
-65M:[Tourism][US] Capitol Reef National Park is a land of big statements. Monumental rock formations rise steeply from the Utah desert, mostly adjacent to the Waterpocket Fold. Don't let that mellow name fool you—this nearly 100-mile-long warp in the earth (or monocline) was likely created some 65 million years ago in a cataclysmic collision of continental plates. Millennia of erosion has revealed vivid bands of contrasting colors throughout cliffs, canyons, buttes, and towers. Capitol Reef National Park's immense geological features once blocked settlers making their way across North America, but now astound more than a million park visitors a year.
The moon lacks an atmosphere to scatter light, so there are no sunsets there, but Utah's Moonscape Overlook gives a good idea of what one might look like. And if you're in a really meta mood, you can see this lunar landscape under moonlight as well: Since it's overseen by the Bureau of Land Management, backcountry camping here is open and free (though limited to 2 weeks). Just bring plenty of food and water, because you'll find about as many foraging opportunities here as on the actual moon.
Inspired by rock domes that resemble the US Capitol, Capitol Reef National Park's name isn't the only architecturally themed one in these parts. About 14 miles east of the park border rises Factory Butte, named after a far less famous landmark: the large woolen mill in distant Provo. Now the mill is long gone, but these Utah badlands are still quite the fun factory: Rippling ridges and valleys make the Factory Butte Recreation Area a legendary destination for off-roaders.
This aptly named park in Utah boasts not only thousands of arches, but also gigantic sandstone fins, massive balanced rocks, soaring pinnacles, and surreal spires. The extraordinary arch we see in our image is one of the park's 'rock stars.' Delicate Arch rises 52 feet high, and its shape has inspired whimsical nicknames: 'The Chaps' and 'Mary's Bloomers' are just two descriptive names bestowed by cowboys long ago. Rock climbers were once allowed to scale this arch, but that's no longer permitted for any named arch in the park. Delicate Arch does host temporary residents, though: white-throated swifts make their nests up top every summer.
Angels Landing stands nearly 1,500 feet tall in Utah's Zion National Park. Hikers with a firm constitution can make their way up the narrow trail to the summit—sometimes with just a chain-rail as a guide. But oh, what a view for those who make the effort: Zion Canyon yawns below. In 1926, Walter Ruesch, the first superintendent of the park, oversaw the construction of a section of the Angels Landing Trail. Although he had no previous engineering experience, Ruesch planned the steep 21-switchback path out of Refrigerator Canyon up to Angels Landing. The section of the trail, now affectionately called Walter's Wiggles, was first built to enable horse access to Cabin Spring.
Spanning three states and over two million acres, Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest contains within it some of the most spectacular scenery in all of the United States. Our image showcases the autumn splendor of the forested Wasatch mountain range foothills in northern Utah. But this federally protected forest also stretches into parts of Idaho and Wyoming. As you may expect, hiking trails abound throughout much of the national forest and its wilderness areas, with abundant opportunities to get away from it all—for both hiking newbies and expert backcountry trekkers alike.
The Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument contains an expanse of stunning rock formations in southern Utah, including the fin-backed Sunset Arch, featured in our image. The monument, established in 1996, spans more than 2,900 square miles, and is one of several national parks and reserves located along the Grand Staircase. The layers of sediment, stacked like stair steps, date back as far as 600 million years. Many of these layers include fossils of long-extinct creatures, and the area is a hotspot for palaeontologists: In 2002, the remains of a gryposaurus, a fossil roughly 75 million years old, was found near the monument's Arizona border.
While we're seeing Bryce Canyon under the summer sun, it's the cold that's responsible for this national park's unique red-rock pinnacles, or hoodoos. Set high above sea level, the canyon sees frequent shifts between above- and below-freezing temperatures. Hoodoos formed as water seeped into massive stone plateaus, then froze and expanded to break away chunks of rock. Repeated day after day for eons, this process has left slim sections of sediment standing throughout Bryce Canyon—now the largest concentration of hoodoos in the world.
One of the more than 2,000 formations that give Arches National Park its name, Skyline Arch becomes a window to the Milky Way on a clear Utah night. Arches' dark skies and otherworldly landscape make it a prime destination for stargazing and night photography. Come daylight, the park offers a variety of outdoor activities, including hiking, horseback riding, and rock climbing.
Chiselled cliffs like this are a common sight here in Utah's curiously titled Capitol Reef National Park. Neither underwater nor near any capitol building, the park is actually named for both its treacherous terrain (settlers used the term 'reef' to refer to rocky ridges that made much of this area impassable) and its stately stone domes that call to mind a Washington, DC, landmark. Those big white domes stand in stark contrast to rust-tinted cliffs like this one, owing to the park's unique and once highly active geology. Capitol Reef is composed of many distinct layers of sediment extending miles below the surface and tilted at an angle. Erosion and tectonics exposed layers at differing rates over millions of years, causing huge variations in both elevation and color.
Cretaceous ended after 79 million years (145–66 MYO)
Flowers
Earliest humans
-61M:[wildlife] Penguins evolved from flying seabirds, likely related to Procellariiformes (albatrosses/petrels), around 60–70 million years ago, shortly after the Cretaceous extinction, originating in the Zealandia/Antarctica region. They specialized into flightless, diving birds, with early species like Waimanu (61 Ma) being among the oldest known, later evolving into giants (Kumimanu) before modern smaller forms dominated.
-60M:[Geography] What ultimately formed Mt. Everest, about 60 million years ago, was the rapid movement of India northward toward the continent of EuroAsia. That altitude at which water turns to gas only at 68*C on 8,848.86 amsl, as the pressure is 1/3rd of that at amsl.
-60M: The first proboscideans, the order that includes elephants, appeared in Africa about 60 million years ago. Elephants originated in Africa and Asia. The earliest elephant ancestors appeared in Africa around 60 million years ago, and the modern genera of elephants (Elephas and Loxodonta) also emerged there. While the genus Loxodonta remained in Africa, Elephas migrated to Asia.
-60M:[Geography][Geology][Geo][Petrology][Mntngg][Travel] Located on the Northeast coast of Ireland, The Giant’s Causeway is a spectacular rock formation consisting of basalt columns formed 50 to 60 million years ago. As volcanic activity pushed the basalt through chalk, the columns shot in vertical direction. As they cooled, they cracked forming a hexagonal shape. Although the columns rise up to 12 meters (36 feet) high and are marvels to view, this causeway has another amazing feature. Many of the columns have eroded until only the tops are visible. This creates an intricate cobblestone type natural walkway, so detailed that it appears as if stone masons laid them.
-60M:[Bio][wildlife] Origins: The oldest fossil records for owls are around 60 MYO (million years old). Early owls appeared soon after the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, making them one of the oldest known groups of land birds. Owls originated approximately 60–65 million years ago during the Paleocene epoch, shortly after the dinosaur extinction. Evolving from diurnal, non-specialized birds, they developed specialized nocturnal adaptations—silent flight, acute hearing, and, in some cases, reversed back to daytime activity, diversifying into the two primary families, Strigidae and Tytonidae, by the Eocene.
-56M: Eocene starts to last till 33.9MYO.
-56M:[Geography] The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift. This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene. The sea is still widening (in 2005, following a three-week period of tectonic activity it had grown by 8m), and it is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson). In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds.
-55M:[Geography] The Black Sea Basin originated during the Cretaceous period, with the modern Black Sea forming around 55 million years ago when it split from the Mediterranean Sea basin. The present form of the Black Sea, characterized by its connection to the Mediterranean, is a more recent development, emerging approximately 6,500 to 7,500 years ago through the formation of the Bosphorus Strait.
-55M: Primates first appeared in the fossil record nearly 55 million years ago, and may have originated as far back as the Cretaceous Period.
-55M: The 55-million-year-old fossil animal, named Gomphos elkema is the oldest complete skeleton by about 20 million years and shows that some early lagomorphs, the group of animals that includes rabbits and hares, had a surprisingly modern, rabbit-like way of moving around. The original rabbits came from the southern European mainland. They evolved millions of years ago in the Iberian peninsula. Phoenician merchants used to refer to this part of the world as “I-sephan-im” which means Land of the Rabbits. The word was translated as “Hispana”, or Espana - i.e., Spain.
-55M:[Bio][wildlife] Falcons are highly evolved, specialized birds of prey (family Falconidae) that emerged around 55 million years ago, with the modern Falco genus originating roughly 20 million years ago. Molecular studies reveal they are more closely related to parrots and songbirds than to hawks or eagles. They are known for exceptional speed and aerial hunting.
-55M:[Bio][wildlife] Early Fossil Findings: Early species, such as Berruornis and Ogygoptynx, indicate early owls were diverse in size. A 55-million-year-old fossil (a near-complete skeleton) shows early owls were similar to snowy owls in size but had different talons.
Scientists estimate that they can live for more than 10,000 years, possibly 15,000 years maximum. One glass sponge observed by researchers in the Ross Sea, a bay of Antarctica, is thought to be the oldest living animal on the planet.
The Turritopsis dohrnii, also known as the immortal jellyfish, is the only animal that can be considered biologically immortal. This tiny jellyfish has the unique ability to revert to an earlier stage of its life cycle when it is stressed or reaches the end of its lifespan, effectively resetting its biological clock. While the immortal jellyfish is theoretically capable of living indefinitely, it can still be killed by predators or disease. The process of reverting to an earlier stage, called transdifferentiation, allows it to rejuvenate and potentially live forever, but it is not impervious to external threats.
Other animals, like hydras, are also known for their regenerative abilities and can potentially live for a very long time, but they are not considered biologically immortal like the Turritopsis dohrnii.
The animal with the best hearing in the world is the greater wax moth. It can detect sound frequencies up to 300 kHz, which is 15 times higher than what humans can hear. This remarkable hearing ability helps the moth evade its main predator, bats, which use high-frequency echolocation to hunt.
Bats:
They use echolocation to navigate and hunt, emitting high-frequency sounds and interpreting the echoes.
Dolphins:
Dolphins also use echolocation underwater, emitting sounds and listening for the returning echoes.
Moths (in general):
Many moth species, including the greater wax moth, have evolved exceptional hearing to detect and evade bats.
Tiger moths:
These moths emit clicks to disrupt a bat's echolocation system.
Rats and Mice:
They can hear a wider range of frequencies than humans, including very high-pitched sounds, according to Ultimate Kilimanjaro.
Cats:
Cats have a broader hearing range than humans, extending into higher frequencies, according to Ultimate Kilimanjaro.
Wolves:
Wolves can hear sounds up to 85,000 Hz, according to the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW).
Pigeons:
Pigeons can hear very low frequencies, which helps them detect distant storms and earthquakes, according to Veritas Hearing.
Several animals have blue blood, including horseshoe crabs, octopuses, squids, and some spiders. This is due to the presence of hemocyanin, a copper-containing protein, in their blood, which turns blue when it binds with oxygen, according to the American Chemical Society. Some other animals like lobsters, clams, and certain types of snails also have blue blood.
Hemerhythrin is another iron-containing pigment that attaches to oxygen molecules and gives a purple-pink hue to the blood of some mollusks, such as lamp shells and sea squirts.
The animal with 25,000 teeth is the snail. Snails possess a ribbon-like tongue called a radula, which is covered in thousands of tiny, microscopic teeth. These teeth are used for scraping and cutting food.
Several animals are known to change gender, a phenomenon called sequential hermaphroditism. Some examples include clownfish, which are typically born male and can change to female, and certain wrasses, which can change from female to male. Other animals like snails and some frog species can also change sex. Clownfish live in social groups with one dominant female and a male. If the female dies, the dominant male will change sex to become the new female.
Many wrasse species, particularly those in harems, can change from female to male when the dominant male is removed.
Some snail species are hermaphroditic, meaning they possess both male and female reproductive organs. They can function as either sex during mating.
Some genetically male bearded dragons can develop as females due to temperature fluctuations during incubation.
Certain green frog species can change sex due to environmental factors like pollution or temperature.
The animal with the largest brain is the sperm whale, with an average brain weight of 7-9 kilograms (around 15-20 pounds) according to the American Museum of Natural History. While elephants have the largest brains on land, the sperm whale's brain is significantly larger and heavier.
The organism with the shortest pregnancy, or gestation period, is the Virginia opossum, which has a gestation period of approximately 12-14 days. This means that from conception to birth, it takes the opossum only about two weeks.
While most mammals also require a break between pregnancies, either to support new young or during periods of seasonal lack of resources, the female swamp wallaby is the only one that can claim the reproductive feat of being permanently pregnant throughout its life. (Which animal is always pregnant?)
The animal with the longest pregnancy is the African elephant, with a gestation period of approximately 22 months. This is significantly longer than most other mammals, including humans. The elephant is the only mammal that is unable to jump. Their large size and the way their legs and ankles are structured make jumping impossible, according to a study from The Royal Veterinary College London. Yes, elephants can get rabies. While not as common as in other mammals, rabies has been documented in elephants, particularly in Asia, and is fatal in all reported cases, according to Elephant Medicine. The virus is typically transmitted through bites from infected canids (like dogs) or other animals.
Lions can survive up to four days without water, but they must eat daily. Lionesses consume 11 pounds of meat per day, while males require 16 pounds or more. Lions sleep for a significant portion of the day, typically 16 to 20 hours, according to Zoo Atlanta and the Lion Habitat Ranch. This extended sleep period is a survival strategy, allowing them to conserve energy for hunting and other activities. Lions have different lifespans depending on whether they live in the wild or in captivity. In the wild, lions typically live for 10 to 14 years, while in captivity, they can live 16 to 25 years or even longer. Lions in the wild face challenges like food scarcity, diseases, injuries, and conflicts, which can shorten their lifespan. Male lions are particularly vulnerable to injury or death during territorial fights with other males. Lions in captivity benefit from regular food, veterinary care, and protection from predators and other dangers, leading to longer lifespans.
Blue whale calves are the largest animal babies in the world, clocking in at a whopping 1360kg —almost the same size as a small car.
The hippopotamus is the animal whose milk is pink. This unique pink color is due to the presence of two special acids secreted by the hippo's skin: hipposudoric acid (red) and norhipposudoric acid (orange), according to YouTube. These acids, often referred to as "blood sweat," also act as a natural sunscreen for the hippos by absorbing harmful UV rays. When these acids mix with the typically white hippo milk, they create the characteristic pinkish hue.
The animal with the strongest bite force is the orca (also known as the killer whale). Orcas are estimated to have a bite force of around 19,000 psi. While other animals like great white sharks and saltwater crocodiles have incredibly powerful bites, the orca's bite force is thought to be significantly higher, according to WorldAtlas.com.
The kangaroo rat is an animal that can live without drinking water for its entire life. They obtain all the moisture they need from the seeds they eat, which contain enough water for their survival. Kangaroo rats have highly efficient kidneys that produce concentrated urine, minimizing water loss. They also have specialized nasal passages that help condense and reabsorb water vapor from their breath, further reducing water loss.
Eagles possess the best eyesight in the animal kingdom, known for their exceptional ability to spot and focus on prey from great distances. They can see details with incredible clarity, thanks to their specialized fovea in the retina, effectively giving them built-in telephoto lenses. This sharp vision allows them to detect small animals like mice from high altitudes. Eagles have a deeper fovea (a pit in the retina) than humans, providing them with superior visual acuity. High Acuity: They can see four times sharper than humans, meaning they can spot prey much further away. Wide Field of Vision: Eagles can see a wide area while also focusing on a specific point, making them excellent hunters.
The Three-toed Sloth has eyesight so poor that they are virtually unable to see anything in detail. This mammal's metabolism is so slow that even its cellular processes, including those in its eyes, are sluggish.
While many animals are known for their impressive memories, some have relatively short memory spans. Goldfish are often mistakenly cited as having the shortest memory, but studies suggest they can remember things for months. Animals like fruit flies, with a memory span of only a few seconds, and bees, which rely more on instinct and pheromones, are often cited as having shorter memories. Chimpanzees, despite their intelligence, can struggle with remembering arbitrary numbers and sequences beyond a few seconds.
Several animals are known for their minimal sleep patterns or unusual sleep behaviors, but no animal is known to completely forgo sleep. Some animals, like jellyfish and fruit flies, have minimal sleep or don't exhibit a clear sleep-wake cycle. Upside-down jellyfish, and potentially others, lack a brain and nervous system, and therefore do not sleep.
Dolphins and giraffes have very short sleep durations, while bullfrogs enter a state of dormancy rather than traditional sleep. Dolphins can rest one half of their brain at a time, while the other half remains active, allowing them to breathe and stay alert.
Mare's milk, when fermented into kumis, contains a mild amount of alcohol. Kumis is a traditional fermented dairy product, similar to kefir, that is made from mare's milk. The fermentation process, which is driven by bacteria and yeast, converts sugars in the milk into alcohol and lactic acid. While kumis is considered an alcoholic beverage, the alcohol content is relatively low.
“Ostriches have the most powerful immune system of any land animal,” Ms. Anikeyeva said. “For some people, ostrich oil works like a miracle.
-50M: Continental collision: Closed around 50 million years ago as the African, Arabian, and Indian plates pushed northward into Eurasia.Mountain uplift: Compressed thick marine sediments to form the Alps and the Himalayas.Modern survivors: Left behind smaller water bodies including the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, and Caspian Sea.
-50M:[Geography] The Arctic Ocean was formed as the Atlantic basin expanded, pushing Greenland and Spitsbergen apart, approximately 50 million years ago. The region's mountains were shaped by orogenies and isostatic uplift, where land rose after the retreat of ice. The Arctic's landscape has shifted over geological time, with evidence of past mountain ranges, deserts, and forests found in rock layers. The Arctic Circle's position is not fixed and fluctuates due to changes in Earth's axial tilt. The Arctic's history encompasses geological formation, early human presence, exploration, and ongoing impacts of climate change. The Arctic Ocean itself formed millions of years ago as the Atlantic basin expanded. Humans, including Paleo-Inuit and Inuit, have inhabited the region for thousands of years, adapting to its harsh environment. European exploration, driven by resource discovery and the search for the Northwest Passage, began later, with Norse and English expeditions. Today, the Arctic faces challenges related to climate change and its effects on the region's ecosystems and communities.
-50M:[Geography] The Spiti River is an antecedent river, meaning it predates the uplift of the Himalayas. This suggests it has been flowing for a very long time, shaping the landscape as the mountains rose.
-50M:[Botany][FnB][Food] Black pepper, often called the "king of spices", originated in the Malabar Coast of India, specifically in the region of Kerala. It is a product of the Piper nigrum vine, a perennial climbing plant native to that area. While cultivated worldwide today, its history is deeply rooted in the spice trade and culinary traditions of southern India, according to IndiaFirst Life Insurance and Indian Culture. Black pepper comes from the dried berries (peppercorns) of the Piper nigrum vine. The vine is indigenous to the Malabar Coast, a region in southwestern India. Black pepper was an important trade commodity, reaching ancient Egypt and Greece. While India remains a significant producer, Vietnam, Brazil, China, and Sri Lanka are also major exporters.
-50M:[Geography] The Himalayas were formed.
-50M: The Spiti River has been flowing since long before recorded history, its presence intertwined with the formation of the Himalayas and the Spiti Valley itself. It's considered an antecedent river, meaning it existed before the uplift of the Himalayan mountain range. Its source is near the Kunzum Pass, and it flows southeast through the Spiti Valley, eventually joining the Satluj River. The Spiti River, particularly in the Pin Parvati region, is fed by glaciers. Glacial meltwater often carries fine rock particles (glacial flour) that are suspended in the water, contributing to the darker color.
-50M:[Everest] From about 50-40 Ma the rate of northward drift of the Indian continental plate slowed to around 4-6 cm per year. This slowdown is interpreted to mark the beginning of the collision between the Eurasian and Indian continental plates, the closing of the former Tethys Ocean, and the initiation of Himalayan uplift.
-50M: Rivers of the Himalayas
The Bhabha River originates near the Bhaba Pass, which connects the Bhaba Valley to the Pin Valley in Himachal Pradesh. Specifically, the river originates around the Chung Sakhango pass on the border with Afghanistan, according to Abhipedia. The Bhaba Valley itself is formed by the Wangyur River, which also originates near the Bhaba Pass. The Bhaba River is a river in Himachal Pradesh, India, and is a tributary of the Sutlej River. It flows through the Bhaba Valley, which is known for its natural beauty, trekking routes, and traditional villages.
The Pin River originates from the Pin Parvati Glacier, specifically from the Srikand Range of the Middle Himalayas. It flows through the Pin Valley in Spiti before joining the Spiti River near Dhankar. The main branch of the Pin River, called Kyoti, begins in the Lasuma mountain area. Another branch of the Pin River joins from the Bhaba Pass near Mudd village. Numerous streams feed into the Pin River, including Palder Chin, Polder Chum, and Shang on the right bank, and Karve, Lavrang, Mudd Taking, Madang, Saguaro, Barakuit, Gooling, Seeling and Kit 'togpos' on the left bank.
The Chenab River originates in the Himalayas, specifically from the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers near Baralacha La pass in Himachal Pradesh, India. It flows through the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, then into the plains of Punjab, Pakistan, eventually joining the Sutlej River to form the Panjnad River, which then flows into the Indus River. Chenab, which translates as the Moon River is the largest of the five tributaries of River Indus. It flows for about 974 kilometers from the High Himalayas of Lahaul to the forests of Jammu and Kashmir and onto the plains of Pakistan. Its main tributaries in India include Miyar, Marusudhar and Tawi.
-50M:The Eurasian plate was partly crumpled and buckled up above the Indian plate but due to their low density/high buoyancy neither continental plate could be subducted. This caused the continental crust to thicken due to folding and faulting by compressional forces pushing up the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau. The continental crust here is twice the average thickness at around 75 km. The thickening of the continental crust marked the end of volcanic activity in the region as any magma moving upwards would solidify before it could reach the surface.
-50M: Evolutionary Timeline: The earliest butterfly fossils date back to the Eocene epoch, between 40-50 million years ago, but their origins are thought to be earlier, in the Cretaceous period.
-50M: Our lineage split from that of cephalopods—the spineless class that includes octopuses, squids and cuttlefish—half a billion years ago. Octopus brains lack any of the major anatomical features of vertebrate brains, and most of the animals' neurons are distributed across their arms rather than in their head. Cecaelia – Half-human, half-octopus. The term was coined by fans in the late 2000s to describe characters such as Ursula from The Little Mermaid.
-50M: Dolphins, along with whales and porpoises, are descendants of land-dwelling mammals that transitioned to an aquatic lifestyle approximately 50 million years ago. Specifically, they evolved from the artiodactyl order, which includes even-toed ungulates, with the earliest cetaceans (including dolphins) known as archaeocetes, becoming fully aquatic within 5 to 10 million years of their initial marine transition. Dolphins are related to land mammals, specifically those within the artiodactyl order. A series of fossil discoveries, particularly from India and Pakistan, document the transition from land to water. These include pakicetids, ambulocetids, remingtonocetids, protocetids, and basilosaurids. The earliest cetaceans, archaeocetes, began adapting to an aquatic environment around 49 million years ago, becoming fully aquatic within a few million years.
-50M:[Geo] Antarctica and Australia finally detached from each other (50 to 45 myo).
-50M:[Geography][Geology][Geo][Petrology][Mntngg][Travel]
The Chocolate Hills are unusual geological formations that consists of at least 1,268 individual mounds scattered throughout the interior of the island of Bohol in the Philippines. The almost symmetrical and same-sized formations range from 30 to 50 meters (98 to 164 feet) high and are covered in green grass. During the dry season the grass turns brow, hence the name. Geologists have not reached any consensus on how these giant mole hills were formed. One theory holds that the Chocolate Hills are the weathered rock formations of a kind of marine limestone on top of a impermeable layer of clay.
Yehliu Geopark in northern Taiwan seemingly offers a rock formation for everyone. One of Taiwan’s most popular tourist destinations, Yehliu is a cape that juts out into the ocean. The mile-long wonder was formed when geologic circumstances forced a mountain out of the sea. The geopark’s most famous formation is Queen’s Head, perhaps because it resembles the bust of Queen Nefertiti. Other rock formations include Camel, Mushroom, Fairy Shoe and Sea Candles.
Situated about 45 km north of the Farafra oasis in the vast Western Desert of Egypt, the White Desert is made of oddly shaped chalk formation. In clear contrast with the yellowish brown of the surrounding desert, the White Desert is stark white reminding of an Arctic landscape. The soft chalk material, at the mercy of the elements has been contoured into amazing shapes. A few of the shapes resemble marshmallows, camels, and mushrooms. The imagination goes wild in this very remote spot.
Acacus Mountains or Tadrart Acacus is a mountain range in the Sahara Desert in western Libya. The Acacus Mountains have a large variation of landscapes, from differently colored sanddunes to arches, gorges, isolated rocks and deep ravines. Major landmarks include the arches of Afzejare and Tin Khlega. The area is also well-known for its prehistoric rock art.
The Ennedi Desert is located in north-eastern Chad in one of the most inaccessible region of the Sahara. The plateau is full of interesting sandstone formations including many hundreds of natural stacks and arches. One of the arches, the Aloba Arch has a height of nearly 120 meters (400 feet) and is one of the most spectacular arches in the world. Apart from the geological attractions petroglyphs and rock paintings can also be found in the area.
Located close to the western coast of Madagascar, the Tsingy de Bemaraha reserve is a karstic landscape of sharp limestone pinnacles called tsingy. The spectacular canyon of the Manambolo river and rolling hills cut through the tsingy creating a diverse landscape. The undisturbed forests, lakes and mangrove swamps of the national park are the habitat for rare and endangered lemurs and birds.
Devil’s Town (Đavolja Varoš) in southern Serbia is a unique geological site with over 200 earth pyramids (2–15m high) capped with stone blocks, formed over centuries by intense erosion. Located on Radan Mountain, the figures are created by volcanic activity and soil erosion, while the area also features highly acidic, mineral-rich springs known as "Devil’s Water".
The waterfall Svartifoss is one of the most visited sites in Vatnajökull National Park in southern Iceland. Also known as Black Fall because of its unusual lava columns that seem layered, Svartifoss has sharp rocks at the base. These rocks break off faster than the rushing waters can wear them down. It’s possible to hike to the top of the 20-meter (65-foot) high waterfall, starting from the Skaftafell visitor center, but it’s mostly an uphill hike.
The Domes de Fabedougou in south-western Burkina Faso are another of Mother Nature’s wonders, with each rock formation in a different shape. Some are tall and slender, others are short and fat, or vice versa; they can be close together or sometimes not. Some of the formations are shaped like rocks, others like pointing fingers. The limestone formations date back 1.8 billion years when the area was under water. Travelers who enjoy rock climbing will treasure this spot, as climbing on the domes is permissible.
The basaltic prisms, in Santa Maria Regla in Hidalgo state, are one of Mexico’s natural wonders. The columns, up to 30 meters (98 feet) high, were created by cooling lava. The formations’ beauty is marked by water from a dam flowing over them. Wandering around the rocks is permissible, but travelers should expect to get their feet wet in the waterfalls. Bridges and other walkways are available for close-up looks, too.
The Bungle Bungle Range is located in Purnululu National Park in western Australia. The range rises up to 578 meters (1896 feet) above sea level and consists of distinctive sandstone domes striped with alternating orange and grey bands. The banding of the domes are due to differences in clay content and porosity of the sandstone layers. The orange bands are a thin layer of iron oxide while the grey banding is cyanobacteria which grows on the layers where moisture accumulates.
Wave Rock in Western Australia is so named because that is exactly what it looks like: an ocean wave. It forms one side of a hill that is known as Hyden Rock. The granite rocks date back 2.63 billion years. Wave Rock is known as a flared slope because of its curving shape. Both Wave and Hyden rocks are located in Hyden Wildlife Park, a nature preserve.
The Wave is a spectacular rock formation that swirls across northern Arizona. The Wave undulates across the landscape like a river of chocolate, instead of the Navajo Sandstone they’re made up. Alas, this phenomenon of nature is not accessible to everyone as the U.S. Bureau of Land Management only allows 20 permits a day into this area of Coyote Buttes, Utah. For those lucky enough to win the permit lottery, mid-day is the best time to get pictures. Coyote Buttes is a section of the Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness managed by the Bureau of Land Management. It spans extreme south-central Utah and north-central Arizona, south of US 89 halfway between Kanab, Utah and Page, Arizona. It is divided into two areas: Coyote Buttes North and Coyote Buttes South.
Despite the name, Bryce Canyon National Park is actually not a canyon, but rather a series of giant amphitheaters filled with colorful pinnacles. The natural rock formations were caused by wind and water erosion on limestone. The colors of red, orange, and white provide an ever changing visual treat. The pinnacles are also known as hoodoos and reach up to 61 meters (200 feet) high. Bryce Canyon is recognized for its great air quality and visibility can be up to 200 miles. Bryce Canyon National Park, a sprawling reserve in southern Utah, is known for crimson-colored hoodoos, which are spire-shaped rock formations. The park’s main road leads past the expansive Bryce Amphitheater, a hoodoo-filled depression lying below the Rim Trail hiking path. It has overlooks at Sunrise Point, Sunset Point, Inspiration Point and Bryce Point. Prime viewing times are around sunup and sundown.
Devil’s Town in south Serbia is filled with natural rock formations that resemble spindles and spires that are reminiscent of the hoodoos at Utah’s Bryce Canyon National Park. The 202 rock formations, created by erosion, range from 2 to 15 meters (6 feet to 49 feet) high. The earthen figures, which started with volcanic action eons ago, are both picturesque and mystical. One local legend says the figures are remains of churches that were destroyed by the devil.
Another piece of nature’s artwork found in Utah, the Arches National Park is known for its inspiring natural arches. Salt beds deposited 300 million years ago from the receding ocean helped form the more than 2000 arches in the park. As the salt shifted, the rock layered on top began to move creating domes and fins. As rain and ice found its way into crevices, it eroded the top Entrada and Navajo sandstone. Add wind to the mix and over the course of millions of years, the amazing arches formed.
Up to 300 meter (1000 foot) sandstone buttes and mesas make up the Monument Valley which is located on the border of Utah and Arizona. Probably the most famous example of the classic American West landscape the area has been the backdrop for numerous western movies, ranging from Stagecoach starring John Wayne to Back to the Future II. Technically it is not a valley at all, but a wide flat landscape interrupted by the crumbling rock formations. The buttes are all that is left from the sandstone layers that once covered the entire region and have vivid red tones from the iron oxide.
Cappadocia, a region famous for its weird and wonderful natural rock formations and one of the top attractions in Turkey. One of the best places to see these strange formations is the town of Göreme, which is located among a large number of tuff cones, termed fairy chimneys. The fairy chimneys have been formed as the result of wind and water erosion of two different volcanic layers. A thick layer of tuff (consolidated volcanic ash) covered by a thin layer of basalt that is more resistant to erosion. Due to the ease of carving into the tuff, many of the fairy chimneys have been hollowed out over the centuries to create houses, churches and storage facilities.
-40M:[Anthro] The earliest primate-like ancestors branched off during the late Cretaceous and early Paleocene epochs. True primitive monkeys emerged in the Oligocene epoch (around 30–40 million years ago), splitting into New World monkeys (South America) and Old World monkeys (Africa and Asia).
-40M: Their initial evolution began about 40 million years ago, from small carnivorous mammals. However, it was only about 20 million years ago that the first identifiable bear, Ursavus elmensis, also known as the dawn bear roamed the earth.
-40M: Wolves belong to the family Canidae, which emerged approximately 40 million years ago.
-36M: Eagles themselves evolved from kites, with the first sea eagles appearing around 36 million years ago. Different eagle species have distinct origins and evolutionary histories, including the golden eagle, which is part of the "booted eagle" group, and the Indian spotted eagle, a South Asian native.
-35M: New World monkeys and catarrhine monkeys emerged within the simians roughly 35 million years ago. Old World monkeys and apes emerged within the catarrhine monkeys about 25 million years ago.
-35M:[Disaster] Popigai Crater: Located in Siberia, Russia; roughly 100 km (62 mi) in diameter, formed about 35 million years ago.
-35M:[Disaster] Chesapeake Bay Crater: Located in the United States; spans 85 km (53 mi) wide, created around 35 million years ago.
-35M"[geo][greece] The Aegean Sea was formed through extensive tectonic crustal extension, crustal thinning, and the gradual fragmentation of a unified pre-existing landmass called Aegeis over the last 35 million years. Subduction and Convergence: The Aegean Sea Geology is primarily driven by the subduction of the African tectonic plate beneath the Eurasian (and Aegean) plate.The Aegeis Landmass (35–20 Million Years Ago): During the Oligocene epoch, extensive orogeny (mountain building) pushed land above the sea, creating a continuous land area connecting mainland Greece to Crete and Asia Minor.Crustal Extension (12 Million Years Ago to Present): Slab rollback (the southward retreat of the subduction trench) and major tectonic stretching severely thinned the continental crust down to 15–20 km.Land Fragmentation (12–5 Million Years Ago): The region began to subside and seawater flooded the lower plains, breaking apart the single Aegeis landmass and forming the initial troughs and island chains.Sea-Level and Volcanic Changes (Pleistocene to Present): Alternating glacial cycles (eustatism) changed sea levels, while intensive post-collisional volcanism formed localized volcanic islands like Santorini and Nisyros.
-33.9M: Oligocene starts to last till 23MYO.
-30M:[Geography] Lake Baikal was formed approximately 25 to 30 million years ago when tectonic plates pulled apart, creating a deep rift valley that filled with water. It is the oldest and deepest freshwater lake on Earth, with its age and isolation contributing to its unique ecosystem and evolutionary significance.
-30M:[Geography] The Red Sea began forming around 30 million years ago when the African and Arabian continental plates started to split apart, creating a rift that filled with water from the Indian Ocean. This process occurred in stages, with the opening of the northern Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez occurring first, followed by the formation of the southern part of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba around 4 million years ago.
-25M:[Geography] The East African Rift (EAR) or East African Rift System (EARS) is an active continental rift zone in East Africa. The EAR began developing around the onset of the Miocene, 22–25 million years ago.[1] It was formerly considered to be part of a larger Great Rift Valley that extended north to Asia Minor.
-25M: The deepest lake in the world is Lake Baikal, located in Siberia, Russia. It reaches a maximum depth of 1,642 meters (5,387 feet). Lake Baikal also holds the title of the oldest (estimated to be 25 million years old) and largest freshwater lake by volume.
-25M:[Tour] The Humboldt Current: Roughly 23 to 25 million years ago, the separation of South America and Antarctica allowed cold polar water to flow northward, forming the cold Humboldt Current. This current generated a coastal atmospheric inversion layer that suppressed rain formation. (Atacama, Chile)
-24.6M: Late Silurian Cooksonia, the first land plant, and a Late Devonian Archaeopteris, the first large tree.
-40M: The Karakoram Range formed during the Cenozoic era as a young fold mountain system driven by the collision of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Its name translates from Turkic roots to "Black Gravel" or "Black Rock". Tectonic Collision: Formed around 40 to 50 million years ago when the northward-moving Indian continental plate smashed into the Eurasian plate. Pre-Collision Activity: Features older subduction-related magmatic rocks and granites dating back to the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods before the main continental smash. Crustal Thickening: Intense compression forced deep crustal melting, creating massive granite and gneiss cores seen in peaks like K2. (Gneiss is a common, high-grade metamorphic rock identified by quartz and feldspar bands, coarse grains, and extreme heat-pressure origins.)
-- Neogene Period (-23M to -2.6M or -26L) --
Cooler temperatures, expansion of grasslands, and appearance of early human ancestors.
The Neogene is a geologic period in Earth's history. It began about 23 million years ago and ended 2.6 million years ago. It is the second period of the Cenozoic Era.
-23M: The Neogene period is the second period of the Cenozoic Era, spanning from 23.03 million years ago to 2.58 million years ago. It is characterized by significant geological and climatic changes, including the rise of grasslands and the evolution of modern mammals and birds. The Neogene is divided into the Miocene (23 to 5.33 million years ago) and the Pliocene (5.33 to 2.6 million years ago).
-23M: Modern dolphin groups, including the Delphinidae (oceanic dolphins), appeared during the Miocene epoch, roughly 23 to 5 million years ago.
-23M: Otodus megalodon, commonly known as megalodon, is an extinct species of giant mackerel shark that lived approximately 23 to 3.6 million years ago, from the Early Miocene to the Early Pliocene epochs.
-23M:[Tourism][TR] Lake Yarışlı in southwestern Türkiye is a shallow, saline, closed-basin lake of tectonic origin situated at an elevation of roughly 854 meters.Tectonic and Regional SettingThe Lakes Region (Göller Yöresi): The lake sits within a major tectonic depression of the Taurus Mountains formed by the collision of the African and Eurasian plates during the early Neogene period.Teke Nappes: Lake Yarışlı, alongside neighboring Lake Burdur and Lake Salda, lies geologically within the complex rock assemblages of the Teke Nappes.Extensional Regimes: The modern basin layout is shaped by an extensional tectonic regime active during the neotectonic evolution of Turkey, creating bounded topographic depressions where internal drainage networks collect.Local Lithology and Sedimentary RockCarbonate Deposits: The surrounding terrain features extensive carbonate rocks, including the Dutdere Limestone found within the Lycian nappes sequence.Commercial Marbles: Local geological formations around the lake basin contain prominent dolomite and limestone deposits that exhibit unique textures and colors highly valued in the commercial marble industry (such as locally termed "Sandia" and "Bayulan" marbles). It's hard to believe such a colourful scene can result from something as simple as swirling sediment and saltwater. This Pollock-esque splatter of azures and ochres comes to us from the salty shallows of Lake Yarışlı in Türkiye (appropriately, the country that gave the colour turquoise its name). This part of southwestern Türkiye is known as the Lakes Region, and includes well over a dozen tectonic lakes known for brilliant blue hues.
-23M:[geo] Kaieteur Falls (Guyana): Hidden deep in the Amazon rainforest, the Potaro River has been cutting through this sandstone plateau for over 23 million year.
The Neogene experienced a general cooling trend, with a warm period in the early Miocene followed by a cooling trend that eventually led to the onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation in the Pliocene.
Mountain ranges continued to rise, and sea levels dropped, leading to the formation of new landmasses and habitats.
Mammals: Many modern mammal families, including primates, carnivores, and ungulates, diversified during this period.
Marine Life: Marine mammals diversified, and sharks reached their largest sizes.
Plants: Grasslands and savannas expanded, replacing forests in many areas, which influenced the evolution of grazing animals.
-23M: The Miocene epoch is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago (Ma).
-20M: Proconsul is the most primitive ape that is well-known from a fossil skeleton. It lived in Africa about 20 million years ago. Like modern apes, it lacked a tail, but it would have been monkeylike in behavior, moving around in the trees on all four limbs. It weighed between 37 and 110 pounds.-11.3M: The Amazon River originated as a transcontinental river in the Miocene epoch between 11.8 million and 11.3 million years ago and took its present shape approximately 2.4 million years ago in the Early Pleistocene.
-17M: Colonization: Around 17 million years ago, butterflies began colonizing Europe.
-14M: Antarctica cooled significantly around 10–14 million years ago.
-14M: The blackfin icefish is a member of the Channichthyidae family (icefish), which, along with other notothenioid fish, radiated in the Southern Ocean after Antarctica cooled significantly around 10–14 million years ago. The origin of the blackfin icefish, Chaenocephalus aceratus, is rooted in the Antarctic region's deep evolutionary past, evolving from ancestors in the suborder Notothenioidei approximately 10-14 million years ago as Antarctica cooled and niches opened. These fish adapted to subzero temperatures through genetic mutations and physiological changes, including a complete loss of hemoglobin and red blood cells and the development of antifreeze proteins. The icefish genome contains multiple genes for antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs) that evolved from trypsinogen genes, helping prevent blood from freezing in the cold Antarctic waters.
-14M:[Anthro] Hominids (the family Hominidae, including humans, great apes, and their extinct ancestors) originated in Africa around 14 million years ago when ancestral lines split from Asian apes. Most ancient human and hominin species went extinct due to severe climate shifts, shrinking ecological niches, and competition or interbreeding with Homo sapiens.
-15M:[geo] The Modern River System (~15 Million Years Old): While the ancient basin has deep roots, the modern Rhine as a continuous, unified system is much younger. Paleontological research from the University of Tübingen revised the age of the Proto-Rhine to at least 15 million years old (dating back to the Miocene epoch) based on fossilized teeth, bones, and wood found in its oldest deposits. Over millennia, the Rhine expanded into its current form through a process called stream capture—essentially stealing water and connecting pieces from other basins like the Danube and the Rhône.
-15M: The Rain Shadow Effect: Around 10 to 15 million years ago (with recent studies suggesting core drying began even earlier, over 40 million years ago), the rising Andes Mountains grew tall enough to block moisture-laden winds coming from the Amazon basin to the east. Meanwhile, the Coastal Range blocked moisture from the Pacific. Intact Deposits: Because the Atacama has experienced virtually no significant erosion or heavy rainfall for millions of years, massive subterranean deposits of copper, sodium nitrate, lithium, and iodine remained chemically intact near the surface. (Atacama, Chile)
-11M:[geo] The modern continental-scale Danube River system formed during the Neogene period (specifically taking its large-scale shape in the Late Miocene to Pliocene epochs, roughly 4 to 11 million years ago) within the Tertiary era, as regional tectonic uplifts and basin fillings coalesced separate waterways into a single continuous drainage path. Late Miocene / Pliocene (Neogene Period): Current geological studies indicate the birth of the modern continental-scale Danube occurred around 11 to 4 million years ago when ancient regional basins (such as the Pannonian and Dacian basins) filled and connected. Older Bedrock Foundations: While the river network is young, the valley's surrounding structural framework (like the Bohemian Massif) dates back through older Tertiary uplift events and deep Precambrian and Paleozoic orogenies. The Danube River begins in the Black Forest of Germany at Donaueschingen, flows 2,850 km (1,770 miles) east, and empties into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine. It famously features major limestone sinkholes (Donauversinkung) near Immendingen, Germany, where surface water drains underground to feed the Rhine basin.
-10M: Deer are believed to have evolved from early ruminants in Eurasia. The oldest known fossil deer, Procapreolus, is found in eastern Europe and dates back to at least 10 million years ago.
-10M:[Anthro] Gorilla: Originated ~8–10 million years ago when their lineage split from the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. They are extant (still alive today).
-10M?:[tour][greece] Sarakiniko Beach is a natural geological formation shaped over millions of years rather than a man-made site with a specific founding year.Geological HistoryVolcanic origins: The unique white volcanic ash, pumice, and tuff rocks were formed by past volcanic eruptions millions of years ago.Natural erosion: Continuous shaping by north winds and sea waves carved the soft rock into smooth, curved, moon-like shapes over long periods.Human HistoryPirate hideout: The Sarakiniko Beach coastline was named after Saracen pirates during the Middle Ages who used its caves to hide ships and loot.Ancient use: Ancient Greeks mined obsidian in the area for tools and weapons.
[greece] Sarakiniko Beach on Milos Island in Greece formed through ancient volcanic activity combined with intense wind and wave erosion.Volcanic OriginsVolcanic activity: Milos is a volcanic island. Sarakiniko's bedrock consists of volcanic materials, primarily tuff (compacted volcanic ash) and layers mixed with pumice.Horizontal layering: Eruptions and ash deposition over millions of years created distinct horizontal strata and fossil layers visible in the rock face.Weathering and ErosionWind and waves: Strong northern winds and crashing waves continuously scour the soft, bone-white volcanic stone.Lunar landscape: This steady erosion smoothed and curved the cliffs into sweeping, vegetation-free white ridges that resemble a moonscape.Caves and tunnels: Water action carved out sea caves, horizontal tunnels, and narrow inlets along the shoreline. Users on The Fossil Forum note that some strata contain sand-filled tunnels left by ancient marine organisms.
-90L: Deer originated in Eurasia during the Early Miocene epoch, likely in the area of present-day Kyrgyzstan and North India. The Cervinae subfamily, which includes most living deer, is thought to have emerged around 7-9 million years ago in central Asia. Deer then spread to other parts of the world, with some species migrating to the Americas.
-85L: The cheetah is considered one of the earliest divergences in felid evolution, about 8.5 million years ago, compared to the large cats of the Panthera group, which still shared a common ancestor about 6 million years ago.
-80L:[Anthro] Chimpanzee: Originated ~6–8 million years ago when the Pan genus split from the human line (Hominini). They are extant.
-70L: Early hominins, which include various genera like Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, and Australopithecus, represent the earliest members of the human lineage, diverging from a common ancestor with African apes roughly 6-7 million years ago. These early hominins exhibited key characteristics like bipedalism (walking upright on two legs), a trait that distinguished them from other apes.
-70L:[Anthro] Hominin: This is a taxonomic tribe (Hominini) rather than a single species. It originated ~6–7 million years ago, encompassing all human ancestors that appeared after splitting from chimpanzees. It remains active today through Homo sapiens.
-70L:[concious] concepts only known to human/animals (and not to plants) like pain, life/origin, death/fate, destiny, past, future, present, scarcity, abundance, opulence, owning, debt, forgive, duty, gift, habitat, home, house, proft, loss etc.
-70L:[concious] Old English agan (past tense ahte) "to have, to own," from Proto-Germanic *aiganan "to possess" (source also of Old Frisian aga "have to, ought to," Old Norse eiga, Old High German eigan, Gothic aigan "to possess, have"), from PIE root *aik- "be master of, possess."
also *ghebh-, Proto-Indo-European root meaning "to give or receive." The basic sense of the root probably is "to hold," which can be either in offering or in taking.
-70L:[anthro] This is kind of an older way of thinking of things, but I think we can help. The "simple farmers" were those whose politics ended at the irrigation ditch. Usually referring to subsistence farmers who wouldn't spend their year constantly ranging like pastoralists who would move flocks around different times of the year.
-70L: The oldest hominins currently known are Sahelanthropus tchadensis from Chad (Brunet et al. 2005) and Orrorin tugenensis from Kenya (Senut et al. 2001). Sahelanthropus, dated to between 6 and 7 mya, is known from a largely complete skull and some other fragmentary remains.
-70L: One of the oldest known hominins, with fossils found in Chad, dated to around 6-7 million years ago; Another early hominin, with fossils discovered in Kenya, also dated to around 6 million years ago; A genus with at least two species, Ar. ramidus being the best known. Ar. ramidus fossils, found in Ethiopia, are dated to around 4.4 million years ago and show evidence of bipedalism; This genus, meaning "southern ape," evolved in eastern Africa around 4 million years ago and is known for species like Australopithecus afarensis (including the famous "Lucy" fossil). Australopithecus is particularly important as it is considered a likely ancestor of the genus Homo.
-70L: Sapience vs. Sentience: While sentient beings can "feel" (pain, pleasure), sapience (self-awareness, high-level cognition) appeared much later, often associated with the genus Homo.
-70L: Archaeological evidence suggests that humans have been using yeast for fermentation for a very long time, possibly as early as a million years ago when early hominins may have fermented fruits. Ancient Egyptians and civilizations in Sumeria and Babylonia used yeast to make bread and alcoholic beverages like beer and mead, respectively, thousands of years ago.
-61L: Orrorin tugenensis (Orrorin (plural Orroriek) means "original man" in Tugen, Kenya), a chimp-like species that was one of the first apes to walk on two legs. They are also referred to as our ancestors.
-60L:[Geography] The Nile Delta contains a deep, buried Messinian canyon that was carved during the Messinian Salinity Crisis approximately 6 million years ago due to a significant sea-level fall of over 1.5 km in the Mediterranean Sea. This event created deep erosional features, including the modern-day Nile canyon, with over 3 km of vertical relief before being buried by the Pliocene and Holocene Nile delta sediments.
-59L:[Geography] Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago.
-59L:[Geography] The Messinian Salinity Crisis (5.9 to 5.3 million years ago) Continental drift: Around 6 million years ago, continental movement closed the Strait of Gibraltar, blocking the entry of Atlantic water. Desiccation: Without water from the Atlantic, the Mediterranean basin, a deep basin, began to dry up due to evaporation, creating extensive salt deposits. Isolated Lakes: The basin became a collection of isolated, extremely salty lakes.
-55L:[Geography] Around 5.5 million years ago, the Paratethys Sea became landlocked, evolving into the Caspian Sea. The Caspian Sea was formed when the Paratethys Sea was separated from the global ocean by tectonic activity, becoming landlocked over 5 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch due to uplift and sea-level drop. It began as a prehistoric sea but was transformed by tectonic forces and climatic shifts into its current state as the world's largest inland body of water. The region was once part of the ancient Tethys Sea, which fragmented over time. Tectonic shifts, particularly the uplift of the Caucasus Mountains to the west and the Alborz Mountains to the south, created the landlocked basin.
-56L: Ardipithecus, a primate group, first appeared in Africa. (according to the Smithsonian Institution). Ardipithecus Ramidus is the scientific name of the first hominid bones found on earth.
-53L: Coyotes belong to the Family Canidae, which originated in North America about 5.3 million years ago.
-53L:[Geography] The Mediterranean became the sea we know today around 5.33 million years ago during the Zanclean flood, when the Strait of Gibraltar opened, rapidly refilling the desiccated basin with Atlantic water. This followed the Messinian salinity crisis, a period of about 600,000 years when the connection to the Atlantic was cut, causing the sea to partially or completely dry up, leaving behind thick layers of salt.
-53L:[Geography] The Zanclean Flood (5.33 million years ago) Breaching the Straits: The natural barrier at the Strait of Gibraltar eventually broke, allowing Atlantic water to rush into the Mediterranean basin. Massive Refill: This event, known as the Zanclean megaflood, was a catastrophic flood that rapidly refilled the Mediterranean Sea. The water level rose quickly, with some models indicating it may have filled at a rate of more than 10 meters per day at its peak. Restoration of the Sea: The flood restored the Mediterranean to its current configuration, forming the sea as we know it today.
-53L:[Geography] Major ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean. The sea provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages. The earliest advanced civilisations in the Mediterranean were the Egyptians and the Minoans, who traded extensively with each other.
-51L:The Island of Hawaiʻi (Big Island): Started forming about 0.4 to 0.5 million years ago during the late Quaternary period.Oldest Main Island (Kauaʻi): Formed about 5.1 million years ago during the late Tertiary period (Neogene period, Miocene/Pliocene epochs).Entire Chain Origin: Began roughly 70 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous period for the furthest northwestern seamounts.
-50L:[Geo][History] Current Configuration: By about 5 million years ago, the seven continents reached their familiar modern arrangement. By the early Pliocene Epoch (around 5 million years ago), the Earth's continents had moved into essentially the same positions they occupy today. The Americas Joined: The Isthmus of Panama formed, connecting North and South America and changing ocean currents. The Mediterranean Refilled: The Zanclean Flood reconnected the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. Modern Climates Emerged: The global climate became cooler and drier, leading to the expansion of grasslands and savannas.
-50L: The Pliocene is a geologic epoch within the Neogene Period, spanning from 5.33 to 2.6 million years ago. It is characterized by global cooling, the formation of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets, and significant changes in flora and fauna, including the emergence of some early hominins. The Pliocene is the second epoch of the Neogene Period, following the Miocene and preceding the Pleistocene.
-50L:[Geography] Lake Khuvsgul was formed by a continental rift in the Pliocene epoch and is estimated to be about two to three million years old, making it one of the oldest lakes in the world, similar to Lake Baikal. It developed as part of the Baikal Rift Zone, which has been active since the late Miocene.
-50L: Modern dolphin groups, including the Delphinidae (oceanic dolphins), appeared during the Miocene epoch, roughly 23 to 5 million years ago.
-50L: Megatherium, an extinct genus of ground sloths endemic to South America that lived from the Early Pliocene through the end of the Late Pleistocene.
-50L:[Tourosm][EU] Great Prespa Lake is an ancient tectonic lake that formed 2 to 5 million years ago, making it one of the oldest lakes in Europe. Tectonic Origin: The lake basin was created by geological faulting and tectonic movements during the Neogene era, long before the formation of the Alps.Ancient Remnant: It stands as a relict of an ancient inland sea that once covered parts of the Balkan peninsula.Hydrology: Sitting at an elevation of 853 meters above sea level, the lake is fed by underground streams and mountain runoff, and it drains partially into neighboring Lake Ohrid through subterranean karst channels. The tripoint of North Macedonia, Albania, and Greece lies on the surface of Great Prespa Lake, the larger of two lofty, interconnected lakes that are among the biggest, highest, and oldest in the Balkans. While shared by three nations, Great and Little Prespa Lake have a wildlife profile all their own, hosting no fewer than nine endemic fish species. Other creatures thrive in this rich, remote environment as well, including a unique freshwater sponge and several varieties of migratory marine birds.
Classical Antiquity: In ancient times, the region was part of Lynkestis (or Lyncus), and the lakes were referred to as Great and Little Brygeis.
Roman and Byzantine Eras: The area served as an important crossroad near the Via Egnata trading route.
10th Century: It became the heart of the Bulgarian Empire under Tsar Samuel, who built a fortress and basilica on the islands within the Prespa basin.
-50L:[Tourism][TR] Lake Salda in southwestern Turkey began forming as a tectonic depression at the end of the Neogene period (approximately 2 to 5 million years ago) within a closed basin. Geological and Formation HistoryTectonic Origin: The lake occupies a closed tectonic basin surrounded primarily by older Mesozoic-era ultramafic rocks (such as serpentinized harzburgite).Mineral Composition: Rainwater and local streams slowly filled the basin, leaching magnesium from the surrounding dark volcanic and ultramafic bedrock.White Shorelines: The distinct white sandy shores and shoals are composed of hydromagnesite (a magnesium carbonate mineral) precipitated from the alkaline water.Microbialite and Stromatolite FormationLiving Fossils: The lake features a unique geobiochemical environment that fosters the growth of modern white hydromagnesite microbialites and stromatolites on its bed and shoreline.Ancient Parallels: These organo-sedimentary structures are created through the interaction of cyanobacteria and bacteria trapping minerals. Similar processes first appeared on Earth roughly 3.5 billion years ago.Mars Analogue: Because its magnesium carbonate deposits and alluvial fan structures closely mirror those detected by NASA at Mars's Jezero Crater, Lake Salda serves as an important terrestrial model for planetary scientists studying ancient Martian environments.
Though this crater lake is among the deepest in Türkiye, its crystal shallows are the main draw for most. Lake Salda's wide white-sand beaches are havens for swimmers and sunbathers—and have even caught the attention of NASA scientists. Much of the mineral-rich shore is encrusted with microbialites: fossilised microbe mats that represent some of Earth's earliest known life. Before the Perseverance rover was sent to Mars in 2020 to explore the Jezero Crater—once also a crater lake—researchers studied Salda's microbialites to better understand the shapes that extinct microscopic Martians might've taken.
-42L:[Anthro] Species / Group: Australopithecus; Approximate Origin: ~4.2 Million Years Ago; Approximate Extinction: ~1.4–1.9 Million Years Ago; Key Note: Early bipedal hominins; gave rise to the genus Homo.
-40L: Australopithecus (or Southern ape)- the parent species of the entire Homo genus evolved in eastern Africa. Evolution started for the 5 fundamental sensations viz. sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing?
-40L: The first fossil records of cheetah (Acinonyx) date from approximately 4 million years ago and evidence of related species was retrieved in America, Europe, Asia, and Africa
-36L: The extinction of the megalodon (giant mackerel shark), which occurred roughly 3.6 million years ago, is believed to be due to a combination of factors including climate change, decreased prey availability, and increased competition with other marine predators. Global cooling during the Pliocene epoch caused a shift in ocean temperatures and currents, impacting the habitats and food sources of megalodon. Simultaneously, the rise of other large predators, like the great white shark, led to increased competition for the dwindling resources.
The closing of seaways, like the Isthmus of Panama, may have further fragmented megalodon populations, making it harder for them to find mates and reproduce.
-33L:[History] Paleolithic Greece, starting c. 3.3 million years ago and ending in -20000 BC. Significant geomorphological and climatic changes occurred in the modern Greek area which were definitive for the development of fauna and flora and the survival of Homo sapiens in the region.
-33L:[Anthro] Australopithecus africanus is an extinct species of australopithecine which lived between about 3.3 and 2.1 million years ago in the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of South Africa. The species has been recovered from Taung, Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, and Gladysvale. (Class: Mammalia Genus: †Australopithecus Scientific name: Australopithecus africanus Family: Hominidae Kingdom: Animalia Order: Primates Phylum: Chordata)
-32L: The oldest known humanoid skeleton - known as Lucy - is about 3.2 million years old???
-- Quaternary Period (-26M to present) --
Ice ages, modern humans (Homo sapiens), and current global climate patterns.
-26L: The genus Elephas, which includes the Asian elephant, migrated out of Africa into Asia during the late Pliocene.
-26L (or -2.6M): The Pleistocene epoch (often referred to as the Ice Age) is the geological epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences, the cutoff of the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being 1.806 million years Before Present (BP).
-26L:[Tourism][Indonesia] Mount Agung and Mount Batur formed in prehistoric times during the Pleistocene epoch through ancient geological collapses and volcanic activity tens of thousands of years ago. Both volcanoes are part of the Sunda volcanic arc in Bali, Indonesia, with origins extending far back into prehistoric geological eras well before human historical records began.
-26L:[Medicine] Clitoria ternatea (butterfly pea or shankhpushp) originated in tropical equatorial Asia, specifically tied to the Indonesian island of Ternate, before spreading globally across the tropics (starting from India and Burma). Clitoria ternatea, commonly known as Shankhupushpam, Asian pigeonwings, bluebellvine, blue pea, butterfly pea, cordofan pea, or Darwin pea, is a plant species belonging to the family Fabaceae and native to the Indonesian island of Ternate. In Indian Ayurveda it is commonly known by the name aparajita.
-26L:[Medicine] Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) is a famous creeping, wetland medicinal herb valued in Ayurveda for boosting memory, reducing stress, and supporting brain health. Bacopa monnieri originates primarily from the wetlands of India, Southeast Asia, and Australia, with a long recorded history rooted in the Indian subcontinent. Known traditionally as Brahmi, it has flourished in damp, marshy tropical regions for thousands of years. Native Regions: Southern and eastern India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, China, Pakistan, Vietnam, and Australia.Global Spread: Thrives in tropical and subtropical regions across Africa, Madagascar, parts of the Americas, and wetlands in warmer zones of the United States like Florida and Texas.Habitat: Grows best in muddy shores, shallow water, and damp marshland.
-26L:The sharp-edged sea stacks of Pegadung speak to an intense tectonic history here on Sumatra, the largest island within Indonesia and one of Earth's most volcanic places. Its mountainous spine still includes nearly 70 active volcanoes, stretching more than a thousand miles from the Strait of Malacca in the north to these craggy shores in the south. Rivaling the massive isle's wild geology is its biology: Sumatra boasts unique types of elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, and orangutan.
[Tourism][Indonesia] Aerial shot of waves on Kelingking Beach, Nusa Penida Island - We're probably safer seeing these churning waves from high above: Swimming is forbidden on the much-Instagrammed Kelingking Beach due to the violence of the surf seen here. But this unique spot on Indonesia's Nusa Penida Island is well worth the visit, just for a glimpse at the surrounding rocky ridge (often noted for its resemblance to a T. rex). Experienced hikers can make their way to the top, earning a view to rival this spectacular drone's-eye shot.
[Tourism][Indonesia] Raja Ampat Islands - Like to island hop? You'll have more than a thousand landing spots to choose from in the Raja Ampat archipelago, an island chain off the northwest coast of New Guinea. This goes double for diving enthusiasts, as the waters around Raja Ampat are part of the Coral Triangle, said to contain the most diverse concentrations of marine life on Earth. Enormous numbers of tropical fish swim in and around what many consider the world's richest coral reef system. More than three-fourths of the world's coral species make their home here, which is why the Raja Ampat region is sometimes dubbed the 'Amazon of the seas.'
[Tourism][Indonesia] Walakiri - Part of the Lesser Sunda islands of Indonesia, Sunda Island is teeming with tropical flora, but perhaps the most striking display is here at Walakiri, a beach on Sunda's northern coast. For this is where the mangroves stand in the sand, forming a surreal grouping that's especially photogenic at sunset. They're known as the 'dancing trees' due to their shapes seemingly stretching and bending to a beat or swaying along with a melody. It's not simply a fanciful sight: Because mangrove trees thrive in saline intertidal environments, they act as a bulwark against erosion, their huge and elaborate root systems dissipating wave energy.
[Tourism][Indonesia] Nusa Penida is a smaller island in the Lesser Sunda chain, while Bali is one of the biggest and by far the best known. Still, the islands are all equally photogenic, and there's plenty of proof backing up that claim. Our image features Atuh Beach, with its iconic spiky sea stack taking centre stage. We can also see some of the coral reefs that grow below the surface of the clear waters. The island is known for its diving opportunities, and renowned for the sea life that may end up in a selfie or social media post—especially the manta rays that abound just offshore. See less
-26L:[Geography] Khyargas Lake was formed by a tectonic origin and the specific formation date is not available, but its history is linked to the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs, with late Holocene and subsequent wetting trends influencing its levels and fluctuations, according to a ScienceDirect article.
-26L: During the Pleistocene, wolves coexisted with the larger dire wolf, which eventually went extinct. A larger, wolf-like coyote existed during the Pleistocene epoch (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago).
-26L: India's newest mountain range is the Shivalik Range, which is also known as the "outer Himalayas". This mountain range was formed relatively recently, in the Tertiary period (around 66 million to 2.6 million years ago), and is still geologically active.3 Apr 2023
-26L: Reindeer, also known as caribou in North America, are a species of deer with a circumpolar distribution, meaning they are found across the Arctic, subarctic, tundra, and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Their origins trace back to the Late Pliocene Epoch, with fossil evidence from Alaska indicating their evolution during that period. Reindeer are native to Northern Eurasia and North America, with some subspecies adapted to forest environments and others to tundra.
-26L:[Geography] The Aral Sea basin formed at the end of the Neogene Period, around 2.6 million years ago. The modern Aral Sea itself formed later, during the Late Pleistocene, around 17,600 years ago, as glacial meltwater filled the basin via the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers. Formation of the Basin Neogene Period: The large depression in the land that now holds the Aral Sea was formed toward the end of the Neogene Period. River Systems: At that time, the Amu Darya river flowed into the Caspian Sea. Formation of the Modern Aral Sea Late Pleistocene & Holocene: The modern Aral Sea was formed by the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers starting around 17,600 years ago. Glacial Meltwater: These rivers carried glacial meltwater from distant mountain systems, including the Tian Shan and Pamir mountains, to fill the basin. Amu Darya's Course: The Amu Darya changed its course from the Caspian Sea to the Aral Sea, flooding the basin entirely for the first time at the start of the Holocene epoch (about 12,000 years ago). Transoxiana - The region is defined as the area between the Amu Darya (Oxus) to the south and the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) to the north. The primary cultural and historical cities are Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva.
-26L:[Tourism][China] The Five-Color Pool (Wucai Pool) in China belongs to the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era, formed through ongoing modern geological and calcification processes lasting thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. This striking Sichuan feature is called the Five Color Pool, but in truth it's part of a nearly 700-pool palette containing countless colours. With its apex above the 11,000-foot elevation mark, this travertine terrace system spills over a 2-mile stretch of the deep gully known as Huanglong ('yellow dragon,' for the pools' resemblance to a scaly beast slithering down the valley). One of the most striking and extensive sites of its kind, Huanglong has been recognised as a World Heritage Site since 1992.
-26L:[EU] The Upper Sava Valley and the channel of the Sava Dolinka River originated along a tectonic fault line during the Neogene period, while its modern alpine landforms and course were intensely shaped and reshaped during the Quaternary period (Pleistocene and Holocene epochs) through glacial and fluvial activity. Geological and Tectonic FoundationBedrock Origin: The headwaters emerge from the Julian Alps, which are composed primarily of Mesozoic (Triassic) limestones and dolomites.Tectonic Valley: The upper valley carrying the river was initially created along an active tectonic fault running between the Julian Alps and the Karawanks.Glacial and Fluvial ModificationPleistocene Epoch: During the Ice Ages of the Quaternary period, massive alpine glaciers carved through the Upper Sava Valley, leaving behind deep glacial troughs, moraines, and deposits.Holocene Epoch: As ice sheets retreated, modern river flow established itself over extensive Pleistocene and Holocene fluvioglacial sediments and gravel terraces that form the floor of the present-day river course. (Lake Koren (Korensko jezero) geological timeperiod origin)
-26L:[geo] The modern valley and course of the Moskva River formed primarily during the Late Quaternary period as glacial meltwaters carved through thick deposits left by Pleistocene ice sheets. Ice Sheet Advances: During the Pleistocene epoch (the last 2 million years), major glaciers covered the region multiple times.
-25.8L:The Quaternary glaciation, also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age, is a period of alternating glacial and interglacial periods within the Quaternary period, which began 2.58 million years ago and continues to the present day. This period is characterized by the expansion and contraction of ice sheets, significant climate fluctuations, and alterations to landscapes and ecosystems.
-25.8L:[Geography] Khar Lake refers to several different bodies of water, so the answer depends on which one you mean. For example, Khagiin Khar Lake in Mongolia was formed during the Quaternary glaciation, and Khar Us Lake, also in Mongolia, is a natural lake in the Khar Us Lake National Park.
-25L:[Anthro] Australopithecus africanus is an extinct species of australopithecine which lived between about 3.3 and 2.1 million years ago in the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of South Africa. The species has been recovered from Taung, Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, and Gladysvale. (Class: Mammalia Genus: Australopithecus Scientific name: Australopithecus africanus Family: Hominidae Kingdom: Animalia Order: Primates Phylum: Chordata)
-24L:[Anthro] Homo habilis; ~2.4 myo; ~1.5 myo; The "Handy Man", known for early stone tool use.
-24L:[Anthro] Homo habilis ( lit. 'handy man') is an extinct species of archaic human from the Early Pleistocene of East and South Africa about 2.4 million years ago to 1.65 million years ago. [Class: Mammalia Genus: Homo Scientific name: Homo habilis Height: 100 – 120 cm Family: Hominidae Kingdom: Animalia]
--Million years ago (MYO)--
-20L:[Anthro] Homo erectus is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene, spanning nearly 2 million years. It is the first human species to evolve a humanlike body plan and gait, to leave Africa and colonize Asia and Europe, and to wield fire. (Class: Mammalia Scientific name: Homo erectus Height: 1.5 – 1.8 m (from 4'11" to 5'11") Family: Hominidae Kingdom: Animalia Order: Primates). First human species to leave Africa and march out into the Asia and Europe.
-20L:[Anthro] Homo sapiens have been around for about 300,000 years. Often, our big brains and intelligence are credited with making us the most successful species to have ever walked on Earth, but that isn't entirely true. There was another species of human that survived on this very same planet for nearly 2 million years, which was the grandparent of so many other human species, including us. They explored new continents. They mastered tools. They may have controlled fire. And they did it all with a brain barely half the size of ours. Enter Homo erectus, a species that may force us to confront an uncomfortable possibility…that intelligence alone isn't what makes a species successful.
(Lower classifications: Java Man, Peking Man, Tautavel Man, Yuanmou Man, and Lantian Man)
-20L: Homo sapiens ("wise man") or modern human first appeared in Africa.-20L:[anthro] "Complex" societies have people whose job it is to mete out power and surplus. David Graeber's "Debt: The First 5,000 Years" Goes into this important distinction. Often a small conflict would occur where a farmer is in debt to another farmer. It may be due to not being able to return a surplus of seeds to someone who lended it. That obligation can be capitalized on and create an ongoing debt. Debt peonage or debt bondage might even express itself as slavery. Often a marriage debt or a dowry would be taken as a part of this obligation.
(CSE)
------------------------------------------- Ancient India - Starts --------------------------------------------------
-20L:[History][India] The Paleolithic Age in India (approx. 2 million–10,000 BCE) was the earliest prehistoric period, characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles, nomadic, and the use of unpolished stone tools. Humans lived in caves, rock shelters, and near river valleys, utilizing quartzite, tools, and bone, with early art appearing in the Upper Paleolithic. (CSE)
-20L:[geo] Quaternary Period (Pleistocene/Holocene): The distinct features of the lower basin and the modern Danube Delta evolved further during the Pleistocene ice ages and the Holocene, less than 10,000 to 2 million years ago.
-19L: The modern cheetah appeared in Africa around 1.9 mya; its fossil record is restricted to Africa.
-18.9L:[Anthro] Homo erectus; ~1.89 myo; -1.1L; First hominin to deeply migrate out of Africa into Asia.
-18L:[Anthro] Homo ergaster; ~1.8 myo; ~1.3 myo; Often classified as the early African form of Homo erectus.
-18L:[Geo] Early Migration: Archaeological sites in Georgia, such as Dmanisi, hold some of the oldest human skull fossils found outside of Africa, dating back nearly 1.8 million years. Crossroads: Located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, the area served as a primary bridge for human movement and trade between Europe and Asia. Boundaries: It spans an area of roughly 170,000 square miles (440,000 square kilometers) between the Kuma-Manych Depression in the north and the borders of Turkey and Iran in the south. Mountain Ranges: It is defined by two main systems: the Greater Caucasus in the north and the Lesser Caucasus in the south, which run parallel to each other. Highest Peak: Mount Elbrus stands at 5,642 meters (18,510 feet) in the Western Caucasus and is recognized as the highest mountain in Europe. Countries: The region includes Southern Russia (Ciscaucasia) and the independent nations of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan (Transcaucasia). (Caucasus)
-17L: Humans first start to wear clothing.
-17L: The Acheulean was a major Lower Paleolithic stone tool industry (approx. 1.7 million to 200,000 years ago) defined by bifacial handaxes and cleavers, marking a cognitive leap in early human (primarily Homo erectus) technology. Originating in Africa, it spread to Asia and Europe, representing the longest-used, standardized tool tradition. (anthro)
-17L:[Anthro] Mythology came from early humans trying to explain the natural world, pass down moral rules, and understand their place in the universe before modern science existed. These stories started as oral traditions told around campfires, evolving over generations and mixing when different cultures met. Explaining nature: People used gods to make sense of weather, storms, the sun, and the changing seasons. Teaching values: Stories gave communities rules for right and wrong, courage, and respect. Answering big questions: Tales explored how the earth, humans, and death began. Oral storytelling: Passed by word of mouth for centuries before being written down.Cultural blending: Migrating groups, trade, and wars merged different local gods and traditions together.Written records: Early civilizations eventually recorded these tales in poems, hymns, and sacred texts.
-17L: Tools & Technology: Known as "Mode 2" technology, these tools were designed with symmetry and forethought, requiring 30–50 strikes to create, often using soft-hammer techniques (wood or bone). Key tools included bifacial handaxes, cleavers, and picks. Creators: Primarily associated with Homo erectus, but also used by Homo heidelbergensis. Timeframe & Distribution: Lasting over a million years, it spanned from roughly 1.7–1.6 million years ago until 200,000–100,000 years ago. It originated in Africa and spread to Europe and Asia. Lifestyle: Users were nomadic hunter-gatherers who processed meat, worked wood, and dug for food. Evidence suggests they achieved control of fire.
Origins: The name of paleolithic history period 'Acheulean' derives from the French site of St. Acheul, where artifacts were first discovered in 1847.
-17L:[Tourism][US] The West Maui Mountains originated from Mauna Kahalawai, an extinct and deeply eroded shield volcano. It formed about 1.3 to 1.7 million years ago, last erupted roughly 320,000 years ago, and was shaped heavily by centuries of intense stream erosion from heavy rainfall. Shield Volcano: Built from countless layers of fluid basalt lava flows.Original Height: Once reached over 13,000 feet before parts of the structure collapsed and eroded.Current Summit: The highest peak today is Puʻu Kukui, standing at 5,788 feet (1,764 meters). Deep Valleys: Heavy trade-wind rainfall (over 300 inches annually at the summit) carved out dramatic valleys and sharp ridges, including the famous ʻĪao Valley.The Valley Isle: Lava flows from the neighboring eastern volcano (Haleakalā) later banked against Mauna Kahalawai, creating the central isthmus that connects the two halves of Maui.
-15L: The coyote and wolf lineages are believed to have diverged from a common ancestor around 1.5 million years ago.
-13L: Non-Africans split from African hunter gatherers.
-13L:[Tourism][US] In terms of shape, Maui is sort of a lopsided figure-eight: two roughly circular shield volcanoes separated by a narrow land strip. The active Haleakalā makes up three-fourths of the landmass, while the extinct Mauna Kahālāwai (better known as the West Maui Mountains) forms the western quarter. Except for the low-lying isthmus joining the two, as well as the broad Central Valley at Haleakalā's base, the island's population mostly lives in small cities hugging the rugged coast, connected by ring roads that circle the dual massifs. Our vantage point is in swanky Wailea, one of several resort towns along the Haleakalā side's southwest shore. Across the azure expanse of Māʻalaea Bay, we can see the Kaheawa Wind Power project's 34 wind turbines spinning on the West Mountains' gust-prone slopes.
-10.48L: Limit of excel records (1048576)
-10L: The first wolf-like canids appeared in Eurasia, with the first wolf fossils found in Alaska dating back 1 million to 700,000 years.
-10L: Wolves, specifically grey wolves (Canis lupus), originated in Eurasia and North America and evolved from a shared lineage with coyotes and other canids during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene eras. Fossil evidence suggests the first wolves appeared in Eurasia around 1 million years ago, subsequently migrating to North America.
-10L:[Geography] Lake Erie was formed by glacial meltwater after the Last Glacial Period, with the most current configuration appearing less than 4,000 years ago, though the process of its formation began with glaciers gouging out the basin between 1 million and 12,600 years ago. Glaciers created the basin and then retreated, leaving behind meltwater that filled the area, leading to the formation of the Great Lakes, including Lake Erie.
-9.3L: About 98.7% of human ancestors were lost during this period. Humanity's ancestors almost went extinct around 900,000 to 930,000 years ago, when their breeding population plummeted to an estimated 1,280 individuals and remained at that critical low for over 117,000 years. This genetic bottleneck, identified through DNA analysis of modern humans, represents a severe reduction in our ancestral population and may explain a gap in the fossil record, impacting the emergence of Homo sapiens. The findings are also supported by a significant gap in the fossil record in Africa and Eurasia during the period from roughly 950,000 to 650,000 years ago.
-7.8L: Polar shift on Earth due to turbulence in Earth's liquid outer core (molten Iron and Nickel). It change polarity at the rate of 15km/year to 55km/year. This polarity helps in navigation.
-7.8L:[Geography] Pole reversal - these reversals are random with no apparent periodicity to their occurrence. They can happen as often as every 10 thousand years or so and as infrequently as every 50 million years or more. The last reversal was about 780,000 years ago.
Since the forces that generate our magnetic field are constantly changing, the field itself is also in continual flux, its strength waxing and waning over time. This causes the location of Earth's magnetic north and south poles to gradually shift, and to even completely flip locations every 300,000 years or so.
-7.7L: The Chibanian, more widely known as the Middle Pleistocene (its previous informal name), is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being a division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. The Chibanian name was officially ratified in January 2020. It is currently estimated to span the time between 0.7741 Ma (774,100 years ago) and 0.129 Ma (129,000 years ago), also expressed as 774.1–129 ka. It includes the transition in palaeoanthropology from the Lower to the Middle Paleolithic over 300 ka.
-7.7L:[Anthro] Neanderthals are an extinct group of archaic humans who inhabited Europe and Western and Central Asia during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. Neanderthal extinction occurred roughly 40,000 years ago with the immigration of modern humans, but Neanderthals in Gibraltar may have persisted for thousands of years longer. ( 📌Shanidar Caves, Kurdistan)
-7L:[Anthro] 700,000–550,000 BCE: The evolutionary line splits. One branch leads to Neanderthals and Denisovans. The other branch leads to modern humans (Homo sapiens).
-6L:[Tourism][TR] Pamukkale, Türkiye, formed through active tectonic faulting and the precipitation of calcium carbonate from thermal springs over at least 600,000 years. Tectonic Setting and Heat SourceDenizli Basin: Pamukkale sits in an active extensional tectonic zone in southwestern Turkey's River Menderes valley.Fault Scarp: Geothermal waters rise to the surface along a major active fault line associated with the region's complex seismic activity.Aquifers: Rainwater and snowmelt filter deep into the ground, where underlying metamorphic and carbonate rocks heat the water above 35 °C (95 °F).Chemical Formation of TravertineDissolved Minerals: As hot water travels through underground rock layers, it dissolves high amounts of calcium and bicarbonate.Carbon Dioxide Release: When the thermal water reaches the surface, carbon dioxide escapes into the air.Precipitation: This loss of carbon dioxide changes the water's chemical balance, causing calcium carbonate to solidify and turn into a chalky, layered white mineral known as travertine.Terrace Growth: Over thousands of years, accumulating mineral layers built up the bright white cascading basins and petrified waterfalls seen today.
It's not hard to see where these travertine terraces in Türkiye got their name: Pamukkale, meaning 'cotton castle' in Turkish. In bright daylight, these huge stair-steps of puffy, porous limestone appear cloud-white, their multilevel pools a dazzling shade of sky blue. When the basins are full of hot spring-fed water, it's a fine place to relax after visiting neighbouring Hierapolis for a dose of ancient history.
-5L:The Island of Hawaiʻi (the Big Island) formed during the Quaternary period, specifically in the Pleistocene epoch, beginning roughly 400,000 to 500,000 years ago. Hotspot Volcanism: Magma pushes up from a fixed stationary plume beneath the Earth's mantle.Tectonic Plate Movement: The Pacific Plate shifts northwest at a rate of about 3 inches (7 cm) per year, creating a chain of shield volcanoes.Active Growth: The youngest volcano, Kamaʻehuakanaloa (formerly Loʻihi), is currently active underwater off the southeast coast of the Big Island.
-4.5L:Pleistocene Epoch / Ice Ages (approx. 450,000–15,000 Years Ago): Glaciations (such as the Anglian glaciation) profoundly rearranged drainage systems. The ancestral Thames was shifted south into its current London basin valley, and glacial ice melt carved and redirected the modern paths of the Severn and Wye.
-4.3L:[Anthro] Neanderthal; -4.3L; -40000; Highly robust Eurasian cousins who interbred with early humans. Neanderthals emerged around 400,000 to 430,000 years ago in Europe and Asia, evolving from a common ancestor like Homo heidelbergensis. They coexisted and interbred with Homo sapiens between 50,500 and 43,500 years ago, before disappearing from the fossil record roughly 40,000 years ago. 430,000–400,000 BCE: Early Neanderthal traits appear in the fossil record in Europe (such as at 📌 Sima de los Huesos in Spain).
-4L:[Anthro] Denisovans; -4L; -30000 to -50000; Mysterious Asian sister group to Neanderthals.
-4L: Marine Isotope Stage 11 or MIS 11 is a Marine Isotope Stage in the geologic temperature record, covering the interglacial period between 424,000 and 374,000 years ago. It corresponds to the Hoxnian Stage in Britain and the Holsteinian in Central Europe.
-4L: The climate of the Fezzan Basin has undergone significant fluctuations throughout its geological history, with alternating periods of pluvial and arid conditions. Presently, the region experiences an arid phase, characterized by minimal precipitation averaging less than 20 mm annually. However, geological evidence suggests that during the Pleistocene epoch, the Fezzan Basin was periodically inundated with water, resulting in the formation of extensive lakes. Sedimentation records indicate that these inundation events occurred at least four times, with thick layers of limestone deposited during each occurrence. Estimates suggest that the largest of these lakes, referred to as Lake Megafezzan, reached its maximum size of approximately 100,000 square kilometers during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 11. Subsequent to this peak, the lake experienced diminishing sizes, with its area reduced to 1,400 square kilometers during MIS 5 and further shrinking during the Holocene epoch.
-3L: Rock Dove (Columba livia): This is the wild ancestor of domestic pigeons. Its origins are traced back to southern Asia, with fossil evidence suggesting a presence there for at least 300,000 years.
-3L:[Geography] Lake Balkhash was not formed at a single point in time but evolved over millions of years from the tectonic activity in the Balkhash-Alakol depression, with large-scale lakes appearing around 300,000 years ago and the modern form emerging through repeated drying and refilling cycles during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs, with a significant ancient lake forming by the Middle Pleistocene.
-3L:[Anthro] Homo sapiens: Originated -3L years ago in Africa. They migrated globally and remain the only surviving human species.
-2L: Humans start losing their fur.
-2L: The Fezzan Basin, situated in Libya, stands as a vast endorheic expanse with no outlet to the sea, characterized by extensive stretches of desert and semi-arid terrain. Positioned amidst the central Sahara desert, it represents one of the significant basins in southern Libya, flanking the northern foothills of the Tibesti Mountains, alongside the Kufra Basin to the east.
-2L: A hidden lake surviving the endless desert - This video shows an aerial view of Ubari Oasis (aka Awbari Lakes), Sahara Desert, Libya, featuring a deep blue lake surrounded by vast sand dunes stretching in all directions. The lake forms a sharp contrast against the dry desert, with a small settlement and scattered vegetation located near its edges. The dunes rise in smooth waves around the water, showing how the landscape is constantly shaped by wind and sand movement. A few structures and pathways can be seen, indicating limited human presence in this remote area. The isolation of the location highlights how water becomes a central point for survival in such an environment. This location is Ubari Oasis, Sahara Desert, Libya, known for its rare desert lakes and isolated conditions within one of the largest deserts in the world.
-1.3L:[geo] Moraine Deposits: The retreat of the final ice sheet about 130,000 years ago left behind a mantle of glacial till, boulder clays, and outwash sands up to several tens of meters thick. (Moskva River)
-1L:
-1L:[Fauna] Scientists believe Ursus arctos evolved in Asia hundreds of thousands of years ago and then spread to Europe and North Africa. The brown bear is a relative newcomer to North America, having arrived in what is now Alaska a mere 100,000 years ago. Our furry friend here is resting their head on a log in an estuary on Admiralty Island, part of Tongass National Forest in southeast Alaska. This island is said to have the highest density of brown bears in North America, and is also called 'Fortress of the Bears' for its robust ursine population. Why the crowds? It might have something to do with the island's massive summer salmon runs.
-1L:[Anthro] Last known Homo erectus populations survived on the Indonesian island of Java until roughly 100,000 to 110,000 years ago, meaning they may have narrowly missed or overlapped temporally with early waves of modern humans. Homo erectus survived massive climate shifts, ecological changes, and overlaps with multiple other hominin species.
-90k:
-74000:[Disaster] The Toba supervolcano's origin lies in a series of at least four supervolcanic eruptions in Sumatra, Indonesia, culminating in a massive eruption around 73,700-74,000 years ago that formed the modern Lake Toba caldera. Located at the intersection of major tectonic lineaments, the Toba volcano is the site of Earth's largest-known Quaternary explosive eruption, a cataclysmic event with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 8, which left a profound mark on the planet's climate and landscape.
-74000:[Geography] The eruption, one of the largest in human history, injected massive amounts of ash and aerosols into the atmosphere, triggering a "volcanic winter". Average global temperatures dropped by 3-5°C (5.4-9.0°F) for several years. The volcanic aerosols caused a significant depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, increasing harmful UV radiation. The once-popular "Toba catastrophe theory" proposed that the eruption caused a near-extinction of humans and a genetic bottleneck. Areas with consistent food supplies, like the Shinfa-Metema 1 site in Ethiopia, acted as refuges for human populations, allowing them to adapt to the changing climate. No sun for six whole years.
Upper Paleolithic Culture or Late Stone Age starts from -50,000 to -10,000
-70xxx:[History][Culture] In the 2013 book First Footprints: The Epic Story of the First Australians, Scott Cane writes that the first wave may have been prompted by the eruption of Toba, and if they arrived around 70,000 years ago, they could have crossed the water from Timor, when the sea level was low – but if they came later, around 50,000 years ago, a more likely route would be through the Moluccas to New Guinea. Given that the likely landfall regions have been under around 50 metres of water for the last 15,000 years, it is unlikely that the timing will ever be established with certainty.
-65xxx:[History][Culture] The earliest evidence of humans in Australia has been variously estimated, with most agreement as of 2018 that it dates from between 50,000 and 65,000 years BP (Before Present). The history of Indigenous Australians began at least 65,000 years ago when humans first populated the Australian continental landmasses. Some history is covered of Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples, two broadly defined groups which each include other sub-groups defined by language and culture. The origin of the first humans to populate the southern continent and the pieces of land which became islands as ice receded and sea levels rose remains a matter of conjecture and debate. Some anthropologists believe they could have arrived as a result of the earliest human migrations out of Africa. Although they likely migrated to the territory later named Australia through Southeast Asia, Aboriginal Australians are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Melanesian population, although Torres Strait Islander people do have a genetic link to some Melanesian populations. There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage
-60xxx: Asians came to the Americas during the last ice age.
-58060: Radiocarbon dating, or carbon-14 dating, is a scientific method that can accurately determine the age of organic materials as old as approximately 60,000 years. First developed in the late 1940s at the University of Chicago by Willard Libby, the technique is based on the decay of the carbon-14 isotope.
-55xxx: Music may have been in existence since now, and the first music may have been invented in Africa and then evolved to become a fundamental constituent of human life.
-50xxx: Ramayana, originally written by Valmiki, consists of 24,000 shlokas and 7 cantos (kaṇḍas) including Uttara Kanda. Ramayana is composed of about 480, 002 words, being a quarter of the length of the full text of Mahabharata or about four times the length of Iliad.
Valmiki is also quoted to be the contemporary of Rama. Rama met Valmiki during his period of exile and interacted with him. Valmiki gave shelter to Sita in his hermitage when Rama banished her. Kusha and Lava, the twin sons of Rama were born to Sita in this hermitage.
-55xxx: Music may have been in existence since now, and the first music may have been invented in Africa and then evolved to become a fundamental constituent of human life.
-50xxx: Ramayana, originally written by Valmiki, consists of 24,000 shlokas and 7 cantos (kaṇḍas) including Uttara Kanda. Ramayana is composed of about 480, 002 words, being a quarter of the length of the full text of Mahabharata or about four times the length of Iliad.
Valmiki is also quoted to be the contemporary of Rama. Rama met Valmiki during his period of exile and interacted with him. Valmiki gave shelter to Sita in his hermitage when Rama banished her. Kusha and Lava, the twin sons of Rama were born to Sita in this hermitage.
-50xxx: Dakshina Kosala: This is the most famous ancient name of Chhattisgarh. According to Ramayana, Lord Rama spent some time of his exile here and this area (Chandkhuri) is also believed to be the birthplace of Mother Kaushalya.
-52,000:[Geography] Lonar Lake in India, which is also sometimes referred to in relation to its crater, that lake was formed by a meteorite impact about 52,000 ± 6,000 years ago during the Pleistocene Epoch.
-53xxx:[Music] A number of flutes dating to about 53,000 to 45,000 years ago have been found in the Swabian Jura region of present-day Germany, indicating a developed musical tradition from the earliest period of modern human presence in Europe.
-50k:
-50000:[History] The Shinano River (信濃川, Shinano-gawa or the Chikuma River (千曲川, Chikuma-gawa) has a long history in Honshu, and along with other rivers in the region, has a significant effect on the geography and ecology of the area. Originally the Shinano River would have drained straight into an estuary-like Fukushima lagoon before making its way into the Sea of Japan after flowing down from the Japanese Alps. Over centuries of sediments being brought downstream, a marshy plain formed in the lagoon into what is currently the Echigo Plain. Early Japanese history is traditionally divided into five major eras: the Paleolithic (c. 50,000 BC – c. 12,000BC), Jomon (c. 11,000 BC to 300 BC), Yayoi (9,000 BC – 250 AD), Kofun (300 AD – 552 AD) and Yamato Periods (552-710 AD).
-50000: first evidence of counting.
-50000: the USA crater. Barringer (Meteor) Crater: Located in Arizona, USA; created 50,000 years ago by a 50-meter iron meteorite.
-50000:[History][Culture] The indigenous peoples of Australia, perhaps the oldest civilization.
-50k:[Anthro] Recent late-surviving individual Neanderthals genome discoveries like "Thorin" have come from the Rhône Valley in southern France. Grotte Mandrin (France): Famous for yielding late-surviving remains (such as the individual named Thorin) dating roughly between 42,000 and 50,000 years ago, representing an isolated genetic lineage.
-40000:[Anthro] Neanderthals are an extinct group of archaic humans who inhabited Europe and Western and Central Asia during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. Neanderthal extinction occurred roughly 40,000 years ago with the immigration of modern humans, but Neanderthals in Gibraltar may have persisted for thousands of years longer.
-40000:[Anthro] The last known Neanderthal fossil and archaeological records date back roughly 24,000 to 40,000 years ago. The classic final refuguge where they clung to survival is the Iberian Peninsula—most notably Gorham's Cave in Gibraltar, while recent late-surviving individual genome discoveries like "Thorin" have come from the Rhône Valley in southern France.
-40000:[crime] Prehistoric Era (c. 40,000 BCE): The earliest evidence of gaming relies on astragali (animal knuckle bones), which acted as primitive precursors to modern dice. Gambling has been an integral part of human culture since prehistoric times, evolving from rudimentary rituals into a highly sophisticated, multi-billion-dollar global digital industry. The history of betting transitions from ancient bone-throwing to physical casinos, and ultimately into the palm of your hand via smartphones.
-38xxx: Modern humans reach Europe.-38000: Neanderthals, a species or subspecies of archaic human, in the genus Homo, became extinct. They were closely related to modern humans, sharing 99.7% of DNA.
-29000:[Culture] Pottery is the process and product of forming vessels and other objects from clay and other raw materials, which are then fired at high temperatures to create a hard, durable form. It is one of humanity's oldest inventions, dating back to 29,000–25,000 BC for figurines and 18,000 BC for pottery vessels in China.
-28xxx: Tally Marks
-27274:[Indonesia] Batur Calders Formation: The large double calderas of Mount Batur collapsed in prehistory, with the first major collapse occurring about 29,300 years ago and the second inner caldera forming around 20,150 years ago. According to traditional Balinese legend, the Hindu god Pasupati split the sacred cosmic mountain Mahameru to create the peaks. Balinese people have revered both mountains as holy dwelling places for gods and ancestors since ancient prehistoric times. Indonesia is one of the planet's most volcanic countries, and its famed resort hotspot of Bali is no exception. This surfer's paradise is home to two currently active volcanoes, Agung and Batur, and its past is packed with volcanic activity—nearly every inch of Bali has been covered with magma at some point in geological history. Because of this, highly fertile soil is found all over the island, and black-sand beaches made of cooled and crumbled lava can be found on most every coast. This stretch of obsidian shore is part of Klungkung, Bali's smallest regency, which also includes the stunning Nusa Penida island group. (Jul 2026)
-26k: Last Ice Age - spanned most of the Late Pleistocene epoch.Last Glacial Maximum (LGM): Peaked between 26,000 and 19,000 years ago when ice sheets reached their greatest extent.End: Concluded around 11,700 years ago, giving way to the current Holocene interglacial period.
-25000: Modern wolf populations are thought to have expanded from a Beringian population roughly 25,000 years ago.
-24500: The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) was the last period in the Earth's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension. Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions.
-24500: The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) was the last period in the Earth's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension. Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions.
-24000:[Anthro] Gibraltar (Gorham's and Vanguard Caves): Long considered the ultimate stronghold where Neanderthals survived down to roughly 24,000 to 28,000 years ago, supported by hearths, tools, and faunal remains.
Wolves migrated to North America in several waves, potentially influenced by glacial cycles.
-21xxx: the most recent ice age peaked and ended after 9500 years.-21000: the Mauritania crater
-18,400:[Mythology] 100 yojan long Ram Setu between India and Sri Lanka. Age of the bridge: Scientific studies suggest that the bridge's formation dates back to at least 18,400 years ago. The causeway was passable on foot until the 15th century when storms deepened the channels between the landmasses.
-18xxx: Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere gradually between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE, which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE.
-15000: Agriculture assumed to begin around this year, or -12000.
-15000: It has been suggested that the 17,000-year-old cave paintings in Lascaux, southern France, depict star constellations such as Taurus, Orion's Belt, and the Pleiades. However, this view is not generally accepted among scientists. (1997, 2011)
-15000:[Geography] Lake Michigan began forming less than 15,000 years ago when massive continental glaciers melted, leaving behind the giant basin that filled with meltwater. The lake's basin was created by ancient glacial forces that scoured the land during the last ice age, a process that also gave rise to the other Great Lakes.
-15000:[Tourism][US] We're witnessing a miraculous sight, but not the walk-on-water kind. It may look like this silhouetted subject is striding on the surface of a mountain lake, but that's actually just an inch or two of water. When rains fall here on the Bonneville Salt Flats, they form a mirror that stretches up to 40 square miles over the tightly packed saline surface. Some 17,000 years ago, this magical illusion wouldn't have been possible: Back then, the basin lay under hundreds of feet of water as Lake Bonneville covered what's now northwest Utah.
-14000: Jomon period at Japan, first period after Paleolithic era at Japan.
-14k:[Tourism][EU] Lake Bled in Slovenia formed approximately 14,000 years ago during the end of the last Ice Age as a glacial lake.Formation ProcessTectonic Foundation: The original basin layout began as a tectonic depression shaped by tectonic activity in the area.Glacial Carving: During the Pleistocene epoch, the massive Bohinj Glacier moved through the valley, deepening and widening the tectonic basin.The Island's Origin: As the glacier advanced, its path hit a large, durable rock ridge. The ice eroded the softer surrounding ground but left this resistant rock standing, which ultimately became Bled Island.Melting and Filling: When the climate warmed and the glacier melted about 14,000 years ago, meltwater filled the carved basin, trapped behind glacial moraines (accumulations of dirt and rocks left by the receding ice).Thermal Springs: Natural tectonic fault lines underneath the region still feed warm underground thermal springs into the northeastern part of the lake today.
-14k:[Tourism][EU] Though the island that supports it is only accessible via traditional flat-bottomed boats (or by trudging over ice during winter), a lonely church at the centre of Slovenia's Lake Bled gets plenty of visitors. At this popular marriage venue watched over by Bled Castle (perched on a bluff at the right of our photo), tradition holds that the groom must carry the bride up all 99 steps to the church's tower and ring its bell, which is said to grant wishes. It's an out-of-the-way setting within what some might call an out-of-the-way country. But if you ask us, Slovenia deserves a spot on any great European tour itinerary.
-13k:[geo] Valley Incision: Enormous volumes of meltwater running off between 19,000 and 13,000 years ago incised the modern riverbed deep into these glacial and sedimentary layers, creating wide valleys, terraces, and large paleomeanders. (Moskva River)
-12500: Deglaciation in Antarctica became the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level.
-12000:[Astro][Space] Vega has been extensively studied by astronomers, leading it to be termed "arguably the next most important star in the sky after the Sun". Vega was the northern pole star around 12000 BCE and will be so again around the year 13724, when its declination will be +84° 14′, less than six degrees from the Pole.
-12k:
-12000:[Agri][Food] Almond trees are widely believed to be among the world's first domesticated trees. Archaeological evidence of cultivated almonds dates back to 3,000 B.C. But some geneticists think that humans probably started cultivating sweet mutated almonds much earlier than that, around 12,000 years ago. How Almonds Went From Deadly To Delicious : The Salt - NPR
-12k:[EU] Lake Koren (Korensko jezero), which later receded to form the modern Zelenci Springs wetland area in northwestern Slovenia, originated during the Quaternary period (specifically in the post-glacial / Holocene transition following the last Ice Age).
-12k:[Tourism][EU] Lake Zelenci formed after the Ice Age when retreating glaciers left behind a dammed valley that eventually drained, leaving a classic karst spring complex at the source of the Sava Dolinka River.Geological Formation and HistoryIce Age Origins: The landscape took shape during post-glacial periods when glacial activity and moraine damming created an early body of water known as Lake Koren (Korensko jezero).Draining and Wetland Creation: Over centuries, the lake partially emptied as water cut through natural barriers, leaving behind the shallow 2-meter-deep emerald lake and surrounding 47-hectare wetland.Karst Resurgence: Groundwater from the Tamar and Planica valleys travels underground through permeable gravel and limestone beds before bursting to the surface.The Emerald Color: Tiny underwater geysers bubble up through a porous layer of lacustrine chalk (lacustrine meaning formed in a lake) on the bed, which filters the water and gives it a striking emerald-green hue.Constant Temperature: Due to the deep underground origin of the spring water, the pool maintains a year-round temperature of 5°C to 6°C and never freezes in winter.
-12k:[Tourism][EU] An alpine forest's brilliant green palette is the perfect complement to the aquamarine tones of Lake Zelenci, but the water's intense colour isn't limited to the verdant summertime. Since it's fed by a natural underground spring, which bubbles up through the Swiss-cheese lakebed flecked with tiny holes, the lake keeps a fairly constant temperature of just above 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, even in the harshest Slovenian winters, these painted waters never turn to a blank canvas of ice.
-11xxx: [Brazil] Some of the earliest human remains found in the Americas, Luzia Woman, were found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years.
-11725:The Holocene Epoch began approximately 11,700 years ago (as of 2025), following the last ice age, and it continues to the present day, making it the current geologic epoch. It is characterized by a significant warming trend and relative climate stability compared to the preceding glacial periods.
-11700: End of the Ice Age | The Pleistocene ends (referred to colloquially as the Ice Age) is the geological epoch that lasted from c. 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. The Last Glacial Period occurred from approximately 115,000 to 11,700 years ago.
-11700:An interglacial period is a warmer phase within a longer ice age, characterized by the retreat of glaciers, rising sea levels, and increased vegetation. These periods of warmer temperatures and less glacial cover, such as the current Holocene epoch that began about 11,700 years ago, alternate with colder, glacially-dominated periods. (2025)
-11700:[tour][de]
-11500:[Geography] Khyargas Lake was formed by a tectonic origin and the specific formation date is not available, but its history is linked to the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs, with late Holocene and subsequent wetting trends influencing its levels and fluctuations, according to a ScienceDirect article.
-11500: the last ice age. warm interglacial age begins.
-11500:[Geography] Uvs Lake was not "formed" at a single point in time; rather, the current lake is a remnant of a much larger, ancient saline sea that covered a significantly larger area thousands of years ago, a process that occurred gradually as a result of shifting climates and geological changes over a long period, with its water level fluctuating throughout the Holocene epoch.
The Upper Paleolithic (c. 50,000–10,000 years ago)
(CSE)
---------------------------------- (-10k to 550) Ancient India - Starts for 950 years ------------------------------
-10k: The Upper Paleolithic (c. 50,000–10,000 years ago) was the final, technologically advanced phase of the Old Stone Age, dominated by Homo sapiens following the disappearance of Neanderthals. It featured refined blade and bone tool technology, the emergence of art (cave paintings, Venus figurines), and complex social structures, including, in some areas, semi-permanent settlements.
-10000: The 10th millennium BC spanned the years 10,000 BC to 9001 BC. It marks the beginning of the transition from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic via the interim Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic periods, which together form the first part of the Holocene epoch that is generally believed to have begun c. 9700 BC and is the current geological epoch. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis.
-10000: There is evidence of petroglyphs along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishermen was replaced by a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural. The Nile is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It originates from Blue Nile River (at Lake Tana in Ethiopia), White Nile (at Lake No, South Sudan), and Atbarah flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest river in the world, though this has been contested by research suggesting that the Amazon River is slightly longer.
The Blue Nile is a river originating at Lake Tana in Ethiopia. It travels for approximately 1,450 km through Ethiopia and Sudan. Along with the White Nile, it is one of the two major tributaries of the Nile and supplies about 85.6% of the water to the Nile during the rainy season.
The White Nile is a river in Africa, one of the two main tributaries of the Nile, the other being the Blue Nile. The name comes from the clay sediment carried in the water that changes the water to a pale color.
The Atbarah River, also referred to as the Red Nile and / or Black Nile, is a river in northeast Africa. It rises in northwest Ethiopia, approximately 50 km north of Lake Tana and 30 km west of Gondar. It then flows about 805 km to the Nile in north-central Sudan, joining it at the city of Atbarah.
-10000:[FnB] This wild apple was likely domesticated in the Tian Shan mountains region, possibly 4,000 to 10,000 years ago. The Silk Road played a crucial role in the apple's spread and diversification. As travelers moved along the route, they carried apple seeds and fruits, leading to hybridization with other wild apple species like M. baccata, M. orientalis, and M. sylvestris. The origin of the cultivated apple (Malus domestica) is traced back to Central Asia, specifically the Tian Shan mountains in Kazakhstan. Its wild ancestor, Malus sieversii, is still found there. The apple then spread along the Silk Road, hybridizing with other wild apple species and eventually becoming the widely cultivated fruit we know today.
[Tourism][TR] Botan Valley National Park, Türkiye - This stunning sight has stopped generations of travellers in their tracks, whether journeying with a merchant caravan to East Asia or just road tripping in Türkiye. Long ago part of the Silk Road, and now a national park intercut with miles of trails, the Botan Valley was carved by (what else?) the Botan River—a tributary of the mighty Tigris. Ancient Baghdad-bound businessfolk have given way to watersports enthusiasts in these parts, so if you find a perch with a view, don't be surprised to spot a few windsurfers way down below. Botan Valley National Park in Turkey was officially established on August 15, 2019.
-10000:[FnB] Culinary history studies the evolution of cooking, ingredients, and dining customs from prehistoric fire usage to modern, globalized gastronomy. It tracks the shift from foraging to agriculture (c. 10,000 BCE), the development of complex cuisines in ancient civilizations, and the rise of professional, structured restaurant cooking in the 18th-century French, refining techniques that define modern food culture.
-10000:[FnB] Key Regional and Cultural Cuisines:
Asian Cuisine: Extremely diverse, featuring Chinese (dim sum, stir-fried rice), Japanese (sushi, tempura), Thai (spicy/sour), and Indian (biryani, curry) cuisines.
European Cuisine: Highlights include Italian (pizza, risotto), French (baguettes, cheeses), Spanish (tapas, paella), and Greek (moussaka, feta) cuisines.
American Cuisine: A blend of diverse influences, including Southern BBQ, Creole, and New York-style pizza, along with Latin American and Caribbean influences.
African Cuisine: Known for bold flavors, such as North African tagines, West African jollof rice, and Southern African braai.
Middle Eastern Cuisine: Characterized by staples like lamb, olive oil, lemons, and staples such as hummus, kebabs, and couscous.
Fusion Cuisine: Combines techniques and ingredients from two or more distinct culinary traditions to create innovative dishes. (Popular in metro cities, and the US and UK)
-10xxx: The Neolithic Revolution (circa 10,000 BCE): This period marks the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities. The development of farming allowed for the production of surplus food, leading to population growth, the establishment of villages and towns, and the specialization of labor. This shift laid the foundation for the development of complex societies and civilizations. (the most distinguished turning points in human history)
-10xxx:[silvics] Forest farming focuses on cultivating high-value crops under a forest canopy, which provides shorter-term income while trees grow. Forest produce's legal definition includes timber, charcoal, caoutchouc, catechu, wood-oil, resin, natural varnish, bark, lac, myrobalans, mahua flowers
-10xxx: Tigris-Euphrates river system. Mesopotamia in considered to be emerging on the banks of two rivers Euphrates and Tigris during this time and hence regarded as as the oldest civilization. The river Tigris flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, and empties into the Persian Gulf. The Euphrates is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia. Originating in Turkey, the Euphrates flows through Syria and Iraq to join the Tigris in the Shatt al-Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf.
-10xxx: marks the beginning of the Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic periods, which is the first part of the Holocene epoch; Bottle Gourd is domesticated and used as a carrying vessel; Cave sites near the Caspian Sea are inhabited by humans; Persian domesticated the goat.
-10xxx: [First garden] The enclosure of outdoor space began in 10,000 BC. Though specific details of the first garden remain unknown, historians imagine the first enclosure was a type of barrier used for excluding animals and marauders.
-10k: Coyotes originated in North America and are part of the canid family, which includes dogs, wolves, and foxes. They evolved as a distinct species about a million years ago, diverging from other canids like jackals. The modern coyote appeared around 10,000 years ago, with some populations in the northeastern US and Canada showing wolf ancestry, resulting in larger, wolf-like coyotes.
The Sumerians were the first to create the wheel.
The Sumerians were the first to divide time and days into hours and minutes, day and night.
The Babylonian Code of Hammurabi was the first recorded civil and criminal law code. Babylonian records (Code of Hammurabi) set daily wages (ancient timesheet).
Most historians agree that the concept of a seven-day week dates back about 4,000 years ago to Babylonian times. The Babylonians believed that the solar system was composed of seven planets. This number became sacred to them, and they planned their days around it. With the course of time, the Babylonian concept of the “planetary week” spread to Egypt, Greece, Rome, and finally it became the generally accepted norm worldwide.
It is recognised as the cradle of some of the world's earliest civilizations. The Sumerians and Akkadians, each originating from different areas, dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of recorded history ( c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC.
Cuneiform is the earliest known writing system and was originally developed to write the Sumerian language of southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Over centuries, the flood pulse of the Euphrates and Tigris left the southern plains of what is now Iraq with the richest soil in the Near East.
The region known as the "Cradle of Civilization" is primarily located in present-day Iraq, specifically in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, known as Mesopotamia. While other regions also played a crucial role in early human development, Mesopotamia is most widely recognized for the emergence of complex urban centers and early civilizations.
-10k:[Geography] Lake Superior, in its current form, was created about 10,000 years ago from the meltwater of retreating glaciers that carved out the basin. This basin, however, was pre-formed by a much older event called the Mid-Continent Rift, a 1.1-billion-year-old failed continental rift that created the depression where the lake now sits.
-10k:[History][India] The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that spans the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as well as the historic period. It exhibits the earliest traces of human life in India and evidence of the Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulean times.
-10k:[Tourism][UK] It seems perfectly fitting that Portloe should be set within an officially designated Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. And few would argue with this snug little village's inclusion in a Condé Nast Traveler roundup of some of the most beautiful spots in the country. Portloe is indeed a sweet scenic jewel of southwest England, and began—like many Cornish seaside towns—as a busy fishing port. Visitors here can stay over in a historic harborside hotel, or day-trip by doing a detour from the nearby South West Coast Path for lunch or a leisurely afternoon tea. Initial human presence and scattered dwellings in Cornwall date back to the Mesolithic period around 10,000 BC, with organized permanent stone villages and roundhouses appearing in the Bronze and Iron Ages (c. 2400 BC – 43 AD), while the region's first formalized urban towns (like Bodmin and Launceston) largely emerged around the 6th to 12th centuries AD. Cornish seaside towns were first "discovered" for tourism and leisure during the 18th and 19th centuries, transitioning from working fishing ports and mining hubs into popular holiday destinations. While ancient settlements and fishing villages like St Ives and Mevagissey existed for centuries prior, leisure travel to the coast took off as romanticism, sea-bathing culture, and later the railways opened up the region.
-10k:[Tourism][US] Arizona's Grand Canyon is famous in part for its lack of people (except for those massing tourists around the national park's viewing platforms). But this vast geological wonderland has been inhabited by humans for upwards of 12,000 years. Archaeological digs have uncovered Puebloan tribal sites offering evidence that people not only passed through the Grand Canyon in ancient eras, but some actually called the riverbank and caves home. The Havasupai tribe began to settle in the area some eight centuries ago and their descendants are residents of the Grand Canyon to this day. This massive gorge of the Colorado River has been a US national park for only a comparatively short period of time—since February 1919.
-10k:[tour][de] Lake Constance (known as Bodensee in German) formed during the ice age by the Rhine Glacier and has supported human settlement for over 10,000 years. Stilt houses: Early farmers built prehistoric pile dwellings along the shores during the Neolithic and Bronze Ages.Roman name: Roman geographer Pomponius Mela first wrote about the lakes in 43 AD, calling the upper part Lacus Venetus and the lower part Lacus Acronis. Later, it took the name Lacus Constantiensis after the town of Constance (Konstanz).
--x Thousands years ago (TYO)--
Mesolithic or Epipaleolithic culture starts from -10,000 to -5000. (Greek: μεσος, mesos "middle"; λιθος, lithos "stone")
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age sratted from -10,200 BC till -4500 and -2000. It was a period in the development of human technology (according to the ASPRO).
-9000:[FnB] Evidence from sites like Abu Hureyra and Mureybit in Syria shows lentils were gathered and potentially cultivated during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period. The wild progenitor of cultivated lentils is identified as Lens culinaris subsp. orientalis. Lentils spread from the Fertile Crescent to Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. They were also introduced to the Indo-Gangetic Plain, where they became a staple food in India. Today, lentils are cultivated in most temperate and subtropical areas, with major production areas including Canada, India, and Turkey. Lentils originated in the Near East and Asia Minor, specifically in the Fertile Crescent, which includes present-day Syria, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine. Archaeological evidence suggests lentils were one of the first crops domesticated by humans, dating back as early as 11,000 years ago. They were cultivated alongside wheat and barley, and their cultivation spread throughout the Near East, Europe, and into the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
-9xxx: Settling on Mediterranean isles started.-9xxx: Early neolithic culture at Mehrgarh. [Crop cultivation-Animal husbandry-Settled life]. No written records are available.
-9xxx: Mid Easterns discovered earliest use of Copper near Anatolia. Copper was probably the first metal mined and crafted by humans. It was originally obtained as a native metal and later from the smelting of ores. Earliest estimates of the discovery of copper suggest around 9000 BCE in the Middle East. It was one of the most important materials to humans throughout the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. Copper beads dating from 6000 BCE have been found in Çatal Höyük, Anatolia.
-9680:Holocene Epoch (Last 11,700 Years, since Jul 2026): Modern channels, floodplains, and estuarine paths stabilized as the ice sheets fully melted and sea levels reached current states.
-9550: This 16-foot tall Norway Spruce, situated in the scrubby Fulufjället Mountains of Sweden, is an incredible 9,550 years old! This is the world's oldest single-stemmed clonal tree. The actual tree trunk itself is only a few hundred years old – it is the root system that has stayed alive for nearly 10,000 years.
-9500:[EU] La Balma de la Margineda, found by archaeologists at Sant Julià de Lòria, was settled in 9,500 BCE as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from river Ariege and river Segre. The Pyrenees are a major mountain range in southwest Europe, forming a natural border between France and Spain, with the small country of Andorra nestled between them. Stretching about 430–500 km between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, the range features high peaks like Aneto (3,404 m), diverse landscapes including national parks and canyons, and popular destinations for hiking and skiing.
-8000:Around 8000 B.C.E., the world population was approximately 5 million.
-8xxx: Indian Civilization. the Archaic period starts in North America till -2000; Agriculture became widely practised in the deltas of Nile, Euphrates and Tigris. Pottery and Animal husbandry (pastoralism) spread to Africa and Eurasia.World population was approximately 50 lakh.
-8xxx:[History][India] Subhash Kak, a main proponent of the "indigenist position", underwrites the Vedic-Puranic chronology, and uses it to recalculate the dates of the Vedas and the Vedic people. According to Kak, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BC)." According to Sudhir Bhargava, the Vedas were composed 10,000 years ago, when Manu supposedly lived, in ashrams at the banks of the Sarasvati river in Brahmavarta, the ancient home-base of the Aryans. According to Sudhir Bhargava, people from Brahmavarta moved out from Brahmavarta into and outside India after 4500 BCE, when seismic activities had changed the course of the Sarasvati and other rivers.
-8xxx:[Food][Physics][Research] The Inca Indians in Peru were the first to cultivate potatoes around 8,000 BC to 5,000 B.C. Potato History: The ancient civilizations of the Incas used the time it took to cook a potato as a measurement of time.
-8xxx:[Food] The earliest archaeological evidence (coriander seeds found in caves in Israel) dates back 8,000 years.
-85xx:[Food] There is evidence that beer was produced at Göbekli Tepe during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (around 8500 BC to 5500 BC). The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced from barley dates to about 3500–3100 BC, from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The first solid proof of beer production comes from the period of the Sumerians around 4,000 BCE. During an archeological excavation in Mesopotamia, a tablet was discovered that showed villagers drinking a beverage from a bowl with straws. Archeologists also found an ode to Ninkasi, the patron goddess of brewing.
-8000:[FnB] Sugar originated as a wild grass in New Guinea where people first chewed the stalks for sweetness, before the process of boiling sugarcane juice into crystallized sugar was developed in ancient India. New Guinea (c. 8000 BCE): Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) was first domesticated and farmed by indigenous peoples who chewed the raw plant. Southeast Asia and India (c. 3500–500 BCE): The plant spread through trade to India, where people invented methods to press the cane, boil the juice, and turn it into solid sugar crystals. (greatest extraction by human ever, like tin, copper, oil , coal etc.) We have neanderthal brains and body livin in tech 2.0 and sugar 5.0 environment.
-8000:[FnB] The domestication of peas is estimated to have occurred roughly 10,000 years ago. The genetic diversity of peas suggests multiple origins, with the Mediterranean region being a primary center and Ethiopia and the Near East as secondary centers. While the exact wild ancestor of the cultivated pea is not definitively known, it is thought to be related to wild field peas or other related species within the Pisum genus. Peas (Pisum sativum) originated in the Mediterranean region and western Asia. Specifically, the area comprising Central Asia, the Near East, Ethiopia, and the Mediterranean is considered the center of origin based on genetic diversity. While the exact wild ancestor is debated, cultivated garden peas are believed to have originated from wild field peas or related species. Peas are now widely cultivated globally for both human consumption (fresh, processed) and as a forage crop.
-8000:[FnB] Musa acuminata, a key ancestor, was first domesticated around 8000 BCE, making it one of the earliest domesticated plants. Modern edible bananas are a result of natural hybridization between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana, along with human selection. Cultivation spread through various trade routes, reaching Egypt and Africa around the 7th century AD (601-700), and then to the Americas after their discovery. Bananas are thought to have originated in Southeast Asia, specifically the Indo-Malayan region. Modern edible varieties are believed to have evolved from two species, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, and their hybrids, found in the rainforests of that area. Cultivation spread to other tropical regions, including India, and eventually reached the Americas after the discovery of the New World. Bananas are now cultivated in warm tropical regions worldwide, between 30°N and 30°S of the equator.
-8000:[Tourism][US] The first humans to settle Yosemite wandered in as many as 10,000 years ago, following receding glaciers to discover a gash in the world guarded by stone giants. And after all these millennia, these mighty mounts still make many a mere human tremble. Nowadays this view up the Yosemite Valley is one of the most sought after in America's national parks, drawing more than 4 million visitors in a typical year.True to its name, El Capitan (The Captain, seen at left) leads the pack here in Yosemite as both a sight to see and a site to conquer. Keen-eyed photographers like Ansel Adams and daring climbers like Alex Honnold have made it one of the most famous chunks of rock on the planet. Not that it needed the help—where else can you see a 3,000-foot sheer cliff tumble straight into a pastoral ravine?
-7000:Determining when humankind actually came into existence isn’t straightforward. The oldest hominins are thought to have appeared as early as 7 million B.C.E. The earliest species of the Homo genus appeared around 2 million to 1.5 million B.C.E. Current evidence supports modern Homo sapiens appearing around 190,000 B.C.E. Modern Homo sapiens originated in Africa, though the exact location has long been debated. Diverse groups are thought to have lived in different locations across Africa for the first two-thirds of human history.
-7xxx: It is believed that lead smelting began at least 9,000 years ago, and the oldest known artifact of lead is a statuette found at the temple of Osiris on the site of Abydos dated circa 3800 BCE.
-7500:[FnB] Evidence suggests that Capsicum annuum was cultivated as early as 7,500 BC in South America, with domestication occurring in Mexico around 6,000 years ago. After the Columbian exchange in the late 15th century, bell peppers were introduced to Europe and subsequently spread to other continents. Green bell peppers, while often unripe versions of other colors, are now a staple in cuisines worldwide, prized for their versatility and mild, slightly sweet flavor.
-75xx:Custard apple, also known as sugar apple or sweetsop, is native to Tropical America, specifically the West Indies and South America. While it's widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions, including India, its origins trace back to the Americas.
-7500:[FnB] Kidney beans were first cultivated over 7,500 years ago in Central America, primarily in present-day Mexico. Rajma, or kidney beans, originate from Central and South America, not India. Portuguese and Spanish traders brought kidney beans to Asia and eventually to India. They were introduced to India during the colonial period, likely by Portuguese and Spanish traders. While the bean itself has a foreign origin, the popular dish, Rajma Chawal, is considered a North Indian specialty, particularly in the Punjab region. Different regions in India have developed their own varieties and styles of preparing rajma, such as the long-grained Jammu and Kashmir rajma and the Chitra Rajma.
-7500:[FnB] Chickpea was first cultivated and consumed in Southeast Turkey (Chaion) around 7500-6800 years ago and in Central Turkey (Hacilar) about 5450 years B.C. While the exact location is debated, the Fertile Crescent region (including parts of modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Iran) is generally considered the primary center of origin. Cicer reticulatum is believed to be the wild ancestor of the cultivated chickpea. Chickpea is broadly classified into two types based on seed color: desi (primarily grown in Asia and Africa) and kabuli (mainly grown in West Asia, North Africa, and Europe).
Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is believed to have originated in India and other tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and parts of the Pacific. It has been cultivated for thousands of years for its aromatic and medicinal properties. The plant was later introduced to Europe and other parts of the world through trade and human cultivation. It was introduced to Europe from India, likely around the 16th century. The name "basil" comes from the Greek word "basileus," meaning "king," reflecting its perceived royal status and widespread use. Basil has a long history of use in traditional medicine and culinary practices, with evidence of its use in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
Mushrooms have a long history, with evidence of consumption dating back 13,000 years in Chile. They are the fruiting bodies of fungi, which are a separate kingdom of life, not plants. The earliest mushroom-forming fungi appeared in the late Cretaceous period, around 90 million years ago. Fungi, including those that produce mushrooms, played a significant role in past ecosystems, even dominating some periods after major extinction events.
Cantaloupes, a type of muskmelon, most likely originated in regions spanning from South Asia to Africa. They were cultivated in ancient Egypt and made their way to Europe, eventually being named after the town of Cantalupo in Italy.
Tangerines, a type of mandarin orange, are believed to have originated in Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam and China. Their name, however, comes from the city of Tangier in Morocco, where they were historically exported from. While the fruit's origins are in Southeast Asia, the name "tangerine" is linked to the port city in Morocco, which served as a major trading point for the fruit.
Grapes, specifically the species Vitis vinifera, originated in Western Asia and the Caucasus region, roughly between the Black Sea and Iran. Archaeological evidence suggests domestication of the grapevine began there 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. From this origin, grape cultivation spread westward to Europe and eastward to Iran and Afghanistan. They were later introduced to India by invaders from Persia in 1300 AD.
The chikoo, also known as sapota, originates from Central America, specifically the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. It was cultivated by the Mayans and Aztecs in ancient times. The fruit then spread throughout Central America and the Caribbean, eventually reaching other tropical regions, including Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. While primarily cultivated for its fruit, the tree's latex (chicle) was also historically used to make chewing gum.
The avocado's origin is in tropical America, specifically in Mexico and Central America. It is believed to have originated from more than one wild species in that region. The fruit was domesticated in Mesoamerica more than 5,000 years ago, according to Wikipedia. Archaeological evidence suggests its use by humans in the Tehuacán area of Mexico as far back as 8000-7000 BC.
Mustard has a long history, with different varieties originating from various regions. White mustard is believed to be of Mediterranean origin, while brown mustard is thought to have originated in the Himalayan region and was later introduced to China and India. Black mustard is endemic to the Southern Mediterranean region.
Sugarcane's origin is traced back to New Guinea, where it was known as early as 6000 BC, according to TNAU Agritech Portal. It then spread to Southeast Asia and the Indus Valley in India. While New Guinea is considered the center of diversity for the "noble canes" (S. officinarum), the wild species S. spontaneum is thought to have originated in subtropical India.
The wood apple tree is primarily native to India, with its range extending from the Himalayan foothills to the Deccan Plateau. Wood apple, also known as Limonia acidissima, is native to the Indian subcontinent and is also found in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and other parts of South Asia. It is a fruit from the Rutaceae family, and the tree is known for its thorny branches and aromatic leaves. The fruit is characterized by its hard, woody shell and a brownish, aromatic pulp. In addition to wood apple, it's also known as elephant-apple, monkey fruit, or crud fruit. The wood apple, specifically from the Aegle marmelos tree, is also referred to as Bael and is a popular fruit in India. The tree can grow in various soil types, including loamy, well-drained, sandy, or clayey soil, and can tolerate a pH range of 5.5-8.0. Wood apples thrive in hot and humid climates with temperatures above 30 degrees Celsius.
Datura stramonium (jimsonweed) or Datura species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. While most species originate from Mexico, which is considered the center of origin for the genus, some species have extra-American native ranges. For example, Datura ferox is native to China, and Datura stramonium, commonly known as jimsonweed, likely originated in Central America. Datura species are generally native to regions with dry, temperate, and subtropical climates.
Tomatoes are native to South America, in fact, several species are still found growing wild in the Andes. Brought to Mexico, tomatoes were domesticated and cultivated there by 500 BC. It is thought that the first cultivated tomato was small and yellow.
The origin of the onion is believed to be in Asia, specifically in the regions of Iran, Pakistan, and Central Asia. Humans have cultivated onions for at least 7,000 years, with evidence of their use found in both eastern and western Asia.
Garlic's origin is generally traced back to Central Asia, specifically the area encompassing parts of West China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. While its exact origin is debated, it has been cultivated and used for thousands of years in various regions, including China, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. Garlic has been used in ancient civilizations, including the Sumerians (2600-2100 BC) and ancient China (as early as 2700 BC). The wild relative of garlic, Allium longicuspis, also grows in Central Asia, further supporting this region's importance.
Genetic studies show that the cultivated potato has a single origin, in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia. The potato was the first domesticated root vegetable in the region of modern-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 and 5000 BC. The finding suggests that potatoes as we know them today arose from a process of hybridization between an ancient tomato plant and other Solanum-related species from the Etuberosum family that, until then, did not produce tubers. The results have been published in the journal Cell.
Gooseberries, which are related to currants, have diverse origins. European gooseberries (Ribes uva-crispa) are native to Europe, northwestern Africa, and parts of Asia. American gooseberries (Ribes hirtellum), on the other hand, are native to northeastern and north-central United States and adjacent Canada. Additionally, the Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana), also known as Inca berry, is native to South America.
The papaya (Carica papaya) originated in southern Mexico and Central America. It is now cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, with India being a major producer. India is a leading producer of papaya, accounting for a significant portion of the world's total production.
The domesticated carrot's origin is in Central Asia, specifically in the regions of present-day Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. Wild carrots (Daucus carota) are native to Europe and southwestern Asia. The domesticated carrot, a result of selective breeding from these wild varieties, was first cultivated around 5,000 years ago. Initially, these carrots were primarily grown for their seeds and leaves, with the root being a secondary consideration.
The radish (Raphanus sativus) is believed to have originated in Europe and Asia, with a high probability of it evolving from the wild radish, Raphanus raphanistrum. The highest diversity of radish is found in the region stretching from the eastern Mediterranean to the Caspian Sea. It has been under cultivation for thousands of years, with evidence suggesting its presence in ancient Egypt and the Mediterranean region before 2000 BC.
Oats are believed to have originated in Asia Minor, with wild oats found in central and eastern Europe. While they were initially considered weeds, farmers eventually recognized their ability to thrive in less fertile soils, leading to their cultivation. Specifically, the wild ancestor of cultivated oats, Avena sterilis, is thought to have grown in the Near East's Fertile Crescent, with domesticated oats appearing later in Bronze Age Europe. The origin of oats can be traced back to approximately 2000 BC in the Middle East or surrounding Mediterranean areas. Avena sativa and Avena byzantine are the two most widely grown. Oats are a cool season crop and ranks sixth in world cereal production.
Archaeological findings in the Yangtze River region indicate that rice was cultivated there from the end of the 3rd millennium BC, with cultivation expanding westward into Southeast Asia, India, and Nepal. Evidence suggests that rice was also cultivated in India independently and predates China by several centuries. Specifically, the Lahuradewa lake in the Gangetic plain is cited as a significant site for early rice cultivation in India, according to India Gate Foods. Rice, a staple food for a large portion of the world's population, is believed to have originated in Asia, specifically in the Yangtze River region of China and the Indian subcontinent. Archaeological evidence suggests that rice cultivation began in these areas around 10,000 years ago.
Both Asian rice (Oryza sativa) and African rice (Oryza glaberrima) have wild ancestors that existed long before cultivation. The wild ancestor of Asian rice, Oryza rufipogon, is thought to have existed in multiple differentiated subgroups from which different subpopulations were independently domesticated. The domestication of rice involved selective breeding for desirable traits like larger grains, easier harvesting, and reduced shattering (where grains detach from the plant).
From these initial centers, rice cultivation spread to other parts of Asia, including Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan, and eventually to other parts of the world through trade and migration. African rice (Oryza glaberrima) is believed to have originated in the Niger River delta.
Oranges originated in the tropical and subtropical regions of Southeast Asia, specifically around Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar. While the sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) is a hybrid, it's believed to have descended from these areas. The earliest mention of the sweet orange in Chinese literature dates back to 314 BC.
Ginger is believed to have originated in the Indo-Malayan region, specifically Southeast Asia. It has a long history of cultivation, with evidence suggesting domestication in India and China thousands of years ago. While its exact wild ancestor is unknown, it's considered a cultigen, meaning it doesn't exist in a wild state. Ginger's journey beyond its origin involved traders who carried it to the Mediterranean region (1st century CE), Arabs who introduced it to East Africa (13th century CE), and the Portuguese who spread it to West Africa and the Pacific islands. Ginger's scientific name, Zingiber officinale, may have roots in the Sanskrit word "sringavera," meaning "with antlers," referring to the shape of its rhizome.
Pistachios originated in Central Asia, specifically the regions of Iran, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan. They were domesticated less than 2,000 years ago and subsequently spread to the Middle East and the Mediterranean area. Archaeological evidence suggests pistachio consumption dates back to 6750 BCE.
Today, Iran is the world's largest pistachio producer, followed by the United States and Turkey.
The coconut palm, scientifically known as Cocos nucifera, is believed to have originated in the Central Indo-Pacific region, specifically the area between western Southeast Asia and Melanesia. This area exhibits the greatest genetic diversity of coconut palms, according to a Wikipedia article. While the exact location is debated, research suggests two primary areas of origin: island Southeast Asia and the southern margins of the Indian subcontinent, according to a study published on the PLOS ONE journal.
Turmeric's origin is deeply rooted in Southeast Asia, particularly India, where it has been cultivated for over 4,000 years. It's considered native to the region and holds a significant place in Indian culture and cuisine.
Honey originates from the nectar of flowers, collected and processed by honeybees. Bees transform the nectar into honey within their hives through a dehydration process. Humans have harvested honey from wild bees for 8000 years (as evidence from cave paintings), and later domesticated them for honey production. Around 2400 BCE, ancient Egyptians were among the first to domesticate bees for honey production.
Almonds are believed to have originated in the Middle East and Central Asia. Specifically, regions around Iran and Turkey are considered to be the ancestral home of the almond. The almond's journey from these regions to other parts of the world involved cultivation and spread along the Mediterranean and eventually to other regions, including the United States, particularly California.
Cashew trees are native to northeastern Brazil. The Portuguese are credited with introducing cashew trees to India and other regions in the 16th century. From there, they spread to various parts of Southeast Asia, Africa, and other tropical areas.
The peanut, scientifically known as Arachis hypogaea, is native to South America. Specifically, archaeological evidence suggests the valleys of the Paraná and Paraguay river systems in the Gran Chaco region of South America as a potential origin point, with purposeful agricultural use documented in Peru around 3900-3750 years before the present. Peanuts were later disseminated to other tropical and subtropical regions, including North America, where they became a significant agricultural crop.
Mint plants, belonging to the genus Mentha, originated in the Mediterranean region and have since spread worldwide. They are now cultivated in various parts of the world, with India being a major producer of Japanese mint, yielding menthol. Mentha, commonly known as mint, is believed to have originated in the Mediterranean basin. From there, it spread throughout the world, both naturally and through human cultivation. Mentha is a genus of about 25 species of fragrant, perennial herbs within the Lamiaceae family. Pudina, also known as mint, originated in the Mediterranean region and spread to other parts of the world. It is a member of the Mentha plant family and is believed to have originated from the Mediterranean basin. Mint has been cultivated and used for its medicinal and aromatic properties since ancient times.
Coriander, also known as cilantro, is native to the Mediterranean and Middle East regions, with evidence of its cultivation dating back to ancient times. It has a long history of use in both culinary and medicinal practices.
Cumin originated in the Levant region of the Eastern Mediterranean and has been cultivated for thousands of years. It is believed to have originated in Syria and Egypt around 4000 years ago and was used both as a spice and a preserving agent. Cumin's popularity spread throughout the ancient world, including Greece, Rome, and India, and it remains a widely used spice today.
Cloves are native to the North Molucca Islands of Indonesia, also known as the Spice Islands. Historically, the trade and cultivation of cloves have been significant in the region's economic development. While Indonesia remains a major producer, cloves are also cultivated in other tropical areas like Madagascar, Tanzania, Sri Lanka, and India.
Bay leaf, commonly derived from the bay laurel tree (Laurus nobilis), is native to the Mediterranean region. Its origin is firmly rooted in this area, where it has been used for centuries in both culinary and medicinal practices. While other plants may be called "bay leaves," the true bay leaf comes from the Laurus nobilis tree.
Lichens are a source of various compounds with potential health benefits, and they are also used in traditional foods. They are a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacteria, with the fungus providing structure and the algae or cyanobacteria providing nutrition through photosynthesis. Lichens are found in diverse habitats, from deserts to rainforests.
The origins of gum trace back thousands of years, with various cultures utilizing natural substances for chewing purposes. While the modern commercialization of chewing gum primarily took place in the United States, the practice of chewing gum-like substances has been widespread across the globe.
Other cultures: Variations of chewing gum were also found in the ancient Horn of Africa and Yemen (Khat), China (Ginseng), the Inuit (Blubber), South America (Coca leaves), South Asia (Betel nuts), and Tropical West Africa (Kola nuts). Ancient Greeks: Chewed mastic gum, a resin from the mastic tree, known for its antiseptic properties. Mayans and Aztecs: Used chicle, a natural gum from the sapodilla tree, for chewing and as an adhesive. Native Americans: Chewed spruce sap. Early settlers in the US: Chewed tobacco leaves.
Tobacco originated in the Americas, specifically South America, and was cultivated by indigenous populations for centuries before European contact. Archaeological evidence suggests tobacco use dates back as far as 3500 BC in Mexico and Peru, with native Americans using it for smoking, chewing, and snuffing. The genus Nicotiana, which includes commercially cultivated tobacco, is primarily native to the Americas, though some species are found in Australia.
The origin of the rose is rooted in ancient history, with evidence suggesting cultivation began in China approximately 5,000 years ago. Roses were used for various purposes, including medicinal uses, perfumed oils, and decorations. While wild roses are native to various regions like North America, Europe, and Asia, the modern garden rose is largely a result of hybridization, with early developments in China.
Marigolds, known scientifically as Tagetes, are native to the Americas, specifically Mexico and Central America. They have a rich history, having been cultivated in Mexico for over 2,000 years. From their origin, marigolds spread to different parts of the world, including Europe and Asia, during the 16th century.
Lily flowers, belonging to the genus Lilium, are native to temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including Europe, Asia, and North America. They are known for their large, trumpet-shaped flowers and long, narrow leaves, typically growing from bulbs. While many plants are called "lilies," the true lilies, or those of the Lilium genus, have this specific origin.
The lotus flower, specifically the Nelumbo nucifera, is native to Asia, with a range spanning from India to China and extending to parts of Australia. It is also found in Southeast Asia, Western Asia, and parts of Oceania. While there are other lotus species, including the American lotus (Nelumbo lutea), the Nelumbo nucifera is the most prominent and is considered the "sacred lotus" in Hinduism and Buddhism.
Nerium oleander, commonly known as oleander or Kaner in hindi, is native to the Mediterranean region. Nerium oleander is native to the Mediterranean basin, including areas in North Africa, Southern Europe, and Western Asia. It is believed to have originated in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. While native to the Mediterranean, it has been widely cultivated and naturalized in many parts of the world. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant and has naturalized in many regions, including parts of Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The plant can be found in river valleys and along streams, tolerating both drought and inundation from winter rains. It is commonly planted as an ornamental in subtropical and tropical areas worldwide. For example, in the US, it's found as far north as Virginia Beach on the East Coast, and in California and Texas.
The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is believed to have originated in the Eastern Mediterranean. While its exact origin is obscured by extensive cultivation throughout Europe since ancient times, it is thought to have been domesticated in Western and Central Europe between 6000 and 3500 BC. The Sumerians are also recognized as one of the earliest civilizations to utilize poppies and opium. Poppies and opium spread along the Silk Road (-130 to 1500), appearing in various cultures and regions.
Chamomile has its origins in Europe and the Mediterranean region, particularly in southern and eastern Europe. It has been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times, with mentions in Egyptian, Greek, and Roman history.
Lemongrass, scientifically known as Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon flexuosus, is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia, including regions of India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and Malaysia. While both C. citratus and C. flexuosus are cultivated for their lemon-like fragrance and culinary uses, C. flexuosus (also known as East Indian lemongrass) is considered native to India, Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand, whereas C. citratus (West Indian lemongrass) is thought to have originated in Malaysia.
Thyme is native to Southern Europe, specifically the Mediterranean region. It's widely cultivated in various parts of the world, including Europe, North Africa, Australia, and parts of Asia and North America. The most common culinary thyme species is Thymus vulgaris, also known as common thyme.
Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) originated in the Americas, specifically in two distinct regions: Mesoamerica (Mexico and Central America) and the Andean region of South America. These were separate domestication events, leading to two distinct genetic pools, according to a study published in Frontiers. Wild beans are native to the Americas, and genetic analysis confirms the initial domestication occurred in Mexico, with subsequent diversification into the Andean gene pool.
Okra's origin is thought to be in Ethiopia, with cultivation by the ancient Egyptians as early as the 12th century BC. It then spread throughout the Middle East and North Africa. While some evidence suggests a possible origin in India, the consensus leans towards Ethiopia as the primary area of domestication.
The origins of marijuana (cannabis) can be traced back to Central Asia, specifically the Hindu Kush mountains and surrounding regions. It's believed to have originated in Asia and has been cultivated for thousands of years for various purposes including fiber, food, medicine, and religious/recreational use.
Asafoetida, also known as "hing" in Hindi, originates from the taproot of Ferula species of plants, primarily found in Afghanistan and Iran. While the plant is native to these regions, asafoetida has been a staple in Indian cuisine for centuries, valued for its distinctive flavor and purported health benefits. The major supply of asafoetida to India comes from Afghanistan and Iran.
The origin of the lemon is uncertain, but it's believed to be a hybrid citrus fruit that likely originated in northeast India, northern Burma, or China. It's thought to be a cross between a citron and a bitter orange. Lemons entered Europe around the 2nd century AD, and their cultivation in Europe began in Genoa in the 15th century, according to SlideShare.
Limes likely originated in northeastern India and Southeast Asia. They spread to the Middle East and the Western world through trade routes, including those used by Arab traders and Crusaders. Spanish and Portuguese explorers then introduced limes to the Americas.
Mosambi, also known as sweet lime, is believed to have originated in Southeast Asia or the Indian subcontinent. It has been cultivated in India for centuries and is widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions. Mosambi is thought to be a hybrid, possibly resulting from a cross between a Mexican lime and a sweet lemon.
While its exact origins are debated, some sources suggest it may have originated in the hills of Meghalaya and Nagaland in India. Historically, Mosambi has been important in Indian cultivation and is a key part of traditional beverages and cuisines, particularly valued for its refreshing and hydrating qualities. It is also used in Ayurvedic medicine and is considered a natural remedy for various ailments.
Lychee is native to the southern and southeastern regions of China. Specifically, it originated in the northern tropical and southern subtropical regions of South China. Wild lychee trees can still be found in the rainforests of provinces like Hainan, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Yunnan. Cultivation of lychee in China dates back over 2,100 years, with records from the Han Dynasty mentioning attempts to grow it in the north. While lychee is also believed to have existed in Vietnam for a long time, China is considered its primary origin.
Wheat's origin is traced back to Southwestern Asia, specifically the Fertile Crescent region. This area, encompassing parts of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran, is where wild emmer wheat was first cultivated around 9600 BC, according to Mohanlal Sukhadia University. The earliest evidence of wheat cultivation has been found in sites like Abu Hureyra and Cayonu, dating back to the Neolithic period, according to Mohanlal Sukhadia University.
The pomegranate is believed to have originated in the region spanning modern-day Iran, Southwest Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan. It has been cultivated since ancient times in the Mediterranean region and northern India. The pomegranate was later introduced to the Americas, specifically California, by Spanish settlers in the late 16th century.
Mulberry trees (genus Morus) are believed to have originated in the Himalayan foothills of India and China. They are widely distributed across temperate, subtropical, and tropical regions globally. Specifically, Morus alba, the white mulberry, is native to eastern and central China.
The Java plum, also known as Jamun or black plum, is native to the Indian subcontinent, specifically India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. It's scientifically named Syzygium cumini. While its primary origin is the Indian subcontinent, it has been introduced to many other subtropical and tropical regions worldwide. It's not just found in the wild; it's cultivated for its fruit, timber, and as an ornamental tree. The tree has been successfully introduced to regions like Florida, California, Algeria, and Israel.
Guava is thought to have originated in the savannas and semi-deciduous forests of South America, with domestication likely starting in southwestern Amazonia. Portuguese colonizers are credited with introducing guavas from the New World to the East Indies. Archaeological evidence suggests guava cultivation in Peru as early as 2500 BC. Guava is also grown in southwestern Europe, specifically on the Costa del Sol in Spain and in Greece. Guava is now cultivated in many tropical and subtropical countries, including parts of the United States (Florida and Hawaii), tropical Africa, and Oceania. Guava is believed to have originated in tropical America, specifically in the regions of Southern Mexico and Central America. It has since spread to other tropical and subtropical regions around the world.
Blackberries are native to Europe, northwestern Africa, temperate western and central Asia, and North and South America. Blackberries are native to temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, with wild blackberries particularly abundant in eastern North America and on the Pacific coast. They are a type of fruit-bearing bush belonging to the genus Rubus, known for their dark, edible aggregate fruit. While the fruit is often called a berry, it's technically an aggregation of small drupelets. While the US is a major producer, blackberries are also grown extensively in Chile, Argentina, and Guatemala for export. The European Union is also a significant producer, with New Zealand also growing them for processing. Blackberries are not botanically true berries, but rather an aggregate fruit composed of many small drupelets.
Strawberries, in their wild forms, have existed for a long time and are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.The first documented cultivation of strawberries dates back to the 14th century (1301-1400) in France, where they were grown in gardens for their beauty and fragrance. The modern cultivated strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) originated in Europe in the 18th century, specifically in Brittany, France. This variety was created by cross-breeding the North American Fragaria virginiana and the Chilean F. chiloensis. While the cultivated strawberry is relatively recent, wild strawberries have been enjoyed for centuries and grow naturally in various parts of the world. The large-fruited strawberry, Fragaria × ananassa, came about from the crossbreeding of the North American F. virginiana (brought to Europe in the early 17th century) and the Chilean F. chiloensis (brought to Europe in 1714). The modern strawberry, as we know it, was largely developed in Europe, particularly in France, starting in the mid-18th century.
Blueberries, particularly the highbush variety (Vaccinium corymbosum), are native to North America. Blueberries are native to North America. While the genus Vaccinium, which includes blueberries, has species native to other parts of the world, the cultivated blueberries (like Vaccinium corymbosum) originate from North America. The first highbush blueberry was cultivated in the early 1900s in New Jersey. While wild blueberries have existed for millennia, the cultivated blueberry, with its larger, sweeter berries and brighter skin, was developed through selective breeding starting in the early 20th century.
The most widely accepted origin story places coffee's discovery in Ethiopia. Legend says Kaldi noticed his goats becoming lively after eating berries from a certain tree. He tried the berries himself and experienced the same effects, leading him to share them with others. Coffee originated in the highlands of Ethiopia. According to legend, the energizing effects of coffee beans were first discovered by a goat herder named Kaldi in the 9th century. From Ethiopia, coffee spread to the Arabian Peninsula, particularly Yemen, and then to the rest of the world.
The port of Mokha in Yemen became a major point for coffee export.
Legend has it that the Sufi saint Baba Budan smuggled seven coffee beans from Yemen to India (specifically, Chikmagalur in Karnataka) in the 17th century, initiating coffee cultivation there.
The cacao tree is native to the Amazon rainforest and its surrounding regions. Evidence indicates that the Mayo-Chinchipe people in present-day Ecuador domesticated cacao at least 5,300 years ago, according to researchers at the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site. The origin of cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is traced back to the Amazon basin in South America. Specifically, evidence suggests domestication occurred in what is now southeast Ecuador around 3300 BC by the Mayo-Chinchipe culture. While the plant is native to South America, it was later introduced to Mesoamerica, where it was widely cultivated and used.
-75xx:[Food][Agri] Capsicum was originated in the American tropics and was used there as food since 7500 BC. It was Columbus who introduced the rest of the world to peppers. Cultivation of capsicum started in Spain in 1493 however it spread to the Mediterranean region and England by 1548. Around the 15th century, Christopher Columbus introduced a variety of New World peppers to Europe. Once the peppers became established in the Old World, European traders brought them to India.
-7570: Bhirrana, a small village located in Fatehabad (Haryana). It is believed to be the oldest IVC site dating back to 7570-6200 BCE. It was excavated by DR. LS Rao in 2005-06. It was part of a hi-conc. of settlements along the mythical Vedic river, Saraswati (now dried, a Ghagghar Ex) in the Thar Desert.
-7xxx: The Huang He (Yellow River) Valley is the birthplace of Chinese Civilization. The Yellow River is the second largest river in China and one of the longest river systems in the world. The archaeological site of Jiahu (7000–5700 BC) in the Yellow River basin of Henan Province, central China, is remarkable for the cultural and artistic remains uncovered there. Jiahu symbols from 6600 BC, Henan, China; stone mask; Beekeeping is first recorded; Domestication of the cow in Middle East; stones were used to grind food and to hunt smaller animals; Deciduous plants make their appearance on Long Island (N. America); plant fibers are twisted, knotted, and looped into baskets, mats (South America); forms of pottery become decoration.
-7xxx: The Huang He (Yellow River) Valley is the birthplace of Chinese Civilization. The Yellow River is the second largest river in China and one of the longest river systems in the world. The archaeological site of Jiahu (7000–5700 BC) in the Yellow River basin of Henan Province, central China, is remarkable for the cultural and artistic remains uncovered there. Jiahu symbols from 6600 BC, Henan, China; stone mask; Beekeeping is first recorded; Domestication of the cow in Middle East; stones were used to grind food and to hunt smaller animals; Deciduous plants make their appearance on Long Island (N. America); plant fibers are twisted, knotted, and looped into baskets, mats (South America); forms of pottery become decoration.
It is hard to say exactly when villages and tribes began arising in the Huang He Valley, but most scholars agree that a major power consolidation occurred from around 2100 to 1600 B.C.E., creating the Xia Dynasty. During that time, tribal leaders came together to try to solve the problem of the Huang He overflowing and wiping out their villages and crops. Da Yu, or Yu the Great, is a mythological figure who created systems to control the floods in the Huang He Valley, and is credited as the first leader of the Xia Dynasty.
-7xxx: The oldest golden treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the burial site Varna Necropolis.
-7xxx:[Food] The avocado (Persea americana) originated in south-central Mexico, sometime between 7,000 and 5,000 B.C. But it was several millennia before this wild variety was cultivated.
-7xxx:[Food] The earliest known evidence comes from 7,000 BCE in China, where residue in clay pots has revealed that people were making an alcoholic beverage from fermented rice, millet, grapes, and honey. Chemical analyses recently confirmed that the earliest alcoholic beverage in the world was a mixed fermented drink of rice, honey, and hawthorn fruit and/or grape. The residues of the beverage, dated ca. 7000–6600 BCE, were recovered from early pottery from Jiahu, a Neolithic village in the Yellow River Valley.
-6000:[History] Predynastic Period in Egypt starts, and ends in -3000 with the advent of dyansty.
-6000:[FnB] Buckwheat is considered a pseudocereal because the high starch content of the seeds enables buckwheat to be cooked and consumed like a cereal. In the U.S., local varieties of buckwheat, tame buckwheat, is considered an economic threat, since many people in the Asian markets are highly allergic. Fagopyrum esculentum, commonly known as buckwheat, is an annual pseudocereal in the Polygonaceae family, cultivated for its gluten-free, nutrient-rich seeds (groats) and as a cover crop. Originating from China, it features heart-shaped leaves and pink/white flowers, providing high-quality protein, rutin, and medicinal uses, including blood pressure management and treating skin conditions. (Kuttu Atta; English name: Buckwheat Flour; Regional names: Okhla, Tau, Faffad; Scientific name: Fagopyrum esculentum)
-6000:[Tourism][EU] If 'MTV Cribs' had traveled back in time 70,000 years, this skylit space is just the kind of Paleolithic pad they'd have toured. Archaeological evidence suggests Devetàshka Cave, in modern-day Bulgaria, housed human denizens from the Middle Stone Age until at least 6,000 BCE. After its rediscovery in the 20th century, Devetàshka was unceremoniously repurposed as a military warehouse, but was soon given back to nature. Now a protected site, this karst cave's days of human habitation are probably over. But it's home to a bustling crowd of another kind: Some 30,000 bats make their home in the cave's depths.
-6xxx: Silver, estimated to have been discovered shortly after copper and gold.
-6xxx: There is evidence that iron was known from before 5000 BCE. The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads of meteoric iron, made in Egypt in about 4000 BCE. The discovery of smelting around 3000 BCE led to the start of the iron age around 1200 BCE and the prominent use of iron for tools and weapons.
-6xxx: There is evidence that iron was known from before 5000 BCE. The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads of meteoric iron, made in Egypt in about 4000 BCE. The discovery of smelting around 3000 BCE led to the start of the iron age around 1200 BCE and the prominent use of iron for tools and weapons.
-6xxx: The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and radiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). [record entry on Feb 20, 2022]
-6210:[Geography] Prehistoric Egypt (ruled for 3110 years) and Predynastic Egypt was the period of time starting at the first human settlement and ending at the First Dynasty of Egypt around 3100 BC.
At the end of prehistory, "Predynastic Egypt" is traditionally defined as the period from the final part of the Neolithic period beginning c. 6210 BC to the end of the Naqada III period c. 3000 BC. The dates of the Predynastic period were first defined before widespread archaeological excavation of Egypt took place, and recent finds indicating a very gradual Predynastic development have led to controversy over when exactly the Predynastic period ended. Thus, various terms such as "Protodynastic period", "Zero Dynasty" or "Dynasty 0"[1] are used to name the part of the period which might be characterized as Predynastic by some and Early Dynastic by others.
-6750:[Food] Archeologists found evidence of pistachios in a dig site at Jerome, near northeastern Iraq, from as early as 6750 BC. The hanging gardens of Babylon were said to have contained pistachio trees during the reign of King Merodach-Baladan about 700 BC. In India, avocado is not a commercial fruit crop. It was introduced from Sri Lanka in the early part of the twentieth century. In a very limited scale and in a scattered way it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Karnataka in the south-central India and in the eastern Himalayan state of Sikkim.
-6180:[Space] Evidence of sun's Schwab cycle can be traced back to here. Orbital length of Jupiter is also 11 years. Jupiter represents 2.5 times the combined mass of all the other planets combined in the solar system.
-5984: IIT Kharagpur says IVC is 8000 yrs. old.
-5500:[Music] Prehistoric Times. The first drums made from natural objects such as alligator skin appeared during 5500 BC. They first came about in Neolithic cultures originating from China but later spread to all of Asia. This period also saw the creation of Bronze Dong Son Drums in Vietnam during 3000 BC. The modern drum kit was born in the twentieth century, and its forefathers were American jazz drummers such as Baby Dodds, Dee Dee Chandler, Gene Krupa, and many others.
-5xxx: (5th millennium BC, -5000 BC to -4001 BC) spread of agriculture from Western Asia throughout Southern and Central Europe; Urban cultures in Mesopotamia and Anatolia flourished, Wheel developed. Copper ornaments became more common, marking the beginning of the Chalcolithic. Animal husbandry spread throughout Eurasia, reaching China. World population grew from 50 lakh (4001 BC) to 70 lakh (5000 BC) people.
-5000:[FnB] Chili peppers originated in Central and South America, with the earliest evidence of cultivation found in Mexico around 5000 BC. They were brought to Europe and other parts of the world by Spanish and Portuguese explorers during the Columbian Exchange. The primary cultivated species is Capsicum annuum.
-5000: the Semite hordes began their migration from the deserts of Arabia. The original alphabet was developed by a Semitic people living in or near Egypt.* They based it on the idea developed by the Egyptians, but used their own specific symbols. It was quickly adopted by their neighbors and relatives to the east and north, the Canaanites, the Hebrews, and the Phoenicians.
A Semite is a member of any of various ancient and modern Semitic-speaking peoples, mostly originating in the Near East, including: Akkadians (Assyrians and Babylonians), Ammonites, Amorites, Arameans, Chaldeans, Canaanites (including Hebrews/Israelites/Jews/Palestinians/Samaritans and Phoenicians/Carthaginians)
In studies of linguistics and ethnology, the term Semitic (from the biblical "Shem", Hebrew: שם) was first used to refer to a family of languages native to West Asia (the Middle East).
A Semite is a member of any of various ancient and modern Semitic-speaking peoples, mostly originating in the Near East, including: Akkadians (Assyrians and Babylonians), Ammonites, Amorites, Arameans, Chaldeans, Canaanites (including Hebrews/Israelites/Jews/Palestinians/Samaritans and Phoenicians/Carthaginians)
In studies of linguistics and ethnology, the term Semitic (from the biblical "Shem", Hebrew: שם) was first used to refer to a family of languages native to West Asia (the Middle East).
-5000:[India][FnB] Ber (Jujube) and Khajoor (Dates) in Indraprastha, Delhi
-5000:[Physics][Space][Research] Investigation into electromagnetic phenomena began as early as 5,000 years ago. There is evidence that the ancient Chinese, Mayan, and potentially even Egyptian civilizations knew that the naturally magnetic mineral magnetite had attractive properties, and many incorporated it into their art and architecture.
-5000:[Food] Coriander was known as far back as 5000 bc and is mentioned in the Bible in Exodus 16:31. The use of the seeds at burials was recorded in 1550 bc. Its use by the Romans and by Hippocrates and other Greek physicians is documented. The Chinese introduced the herb to South East Asia as a substitute for coriander. In the North East, it's known as Naga dhania or Burma dhania.
-5000:[Food] Smoking's history dates back to as early as 5000–3000 BC, when the agricultural product began to be cultivated in Mesoamerica and South America; consumption later evolved into burning the plant substance either by accident or with intent of exploring other means of consumption.
-5000:[Food][FnB] Psyllium husk has a long history of use in traditional medicine, particularly in Ayurveda, dating back 5,000 years. Originating in India, it's known by various names like isabgol and ispaghula, with the name "psyllium" derived from Sanskrit words referring to the seed's horse-ear shape. It was traditionally used for digestive issues, and its popularity grew in the West in the late 1800s as a natural laxative. Psyllium husk is a key component of Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of medicine, and has been used for centuries to treat digestive problems, including constipation and diarrhea. The name "isabgol" comes from Persian, meaning "horse's ear," referring to the seed's shape. In Sanskrit, it's known as "asvakarna," also referencing the seed's shape.
-5000:[crime] Ancient Period (Vedic to 1st Millennium BCE): Land ownership began largely as communal or tribal stewardship. Rulers (kings) claimed sovereign prerogatives over land revenue (taking a 1/6th or 1/8th crop share), while cultivators held functional occupancy rights. Early legal texts like the code of Manu and works by Gautam and Manu noted that continuous adverse possession or usage for 10 years could establish personal claim or transfer rights over a plot.(land encroachment)
(CSE)
------------------------------------------- Ancient India - Starts --------------------------------------------------
-5000:[Geography] The history of human settlement in the western Indian state of Rajasthan dates back to about 100,000 years ago. Around 5000 to 2000 BCE many regions of Rajasthan belonged as the site of the Indus Valley Civilization. Kalibangan is the main Indus site of Rajasthan, here fire altars have been discovered, similar to those found at Lothal.
5th Millennium BC (from -5000 to -4001)
Middle Chalcolithic (from -4500 to -3500)
-4xxx:[Culture] Proto-Semitic likely reached the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, and its daughter languages spread outward from there, while Old Arabic began to differentiate from Central Semitic by the start of the 1st millennium BCE. Central Semitic is a branch of the Semitic language includes Arabic, Aramaic, Canaanite, Phoenician, Hebrew and others.
-4xxx: (4th millennium BC; -4000 BC to -3001 BC) Beginning of the Bronze Age; Invention of writing; World population in the course of the millennium went from 70 lakh to 1.4 crore people.
-4100:What is the oldest language in the world? Scientific American Historians and linguists generally agree that Sumerian, Akkadian and Egyptian are the oldest languages with a clear written record. The Sumerian civilization is generally dated from around 4100 BCE to 1750 BCE, with the Akkadian Empire following from 2334 BCE to 2154 BCE. The Ancient Egyptian civilization had a longer timeline, with the Predynastic Period starting around 4300 BCE and continuing through various dynasties until its absorption into the Roman Empire around 30 BCE. While the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations were centered in Mesopotamia, the Egyptian civilization developed along the Nile River.
-4500: [India] Proto-Indo-European language (common ancestor of the Indo-European language family) is hypothesized to have been spoken as a single language from 4500 BC to 2500 BC during the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age, though estimates vary by more than a thousand years. According to the prevailing Kurgan hypothesis, the original homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have been in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of eastern Europe.
-4500:[Geography][Anthro] Humans first entered the Arctic region around 4,500 years ago. Paleo-Inuit and Inuit peoples developed unique cultures and technologies to survive the Arctic's challenging conditions.
-4500:The Paleo-Eskimo meaning "old Eskimos", also known as, pre-Thule or pre-Inuit, were the peoples who inhabited the Arctic region from Chukotka
-4500:The Inuit timeline spans millennia, with ancestors migrating from Siberia to Alaska and eventually across the Arctic to Greenland. Key periods include the Paleo-Eskimo migrations, the emergence of the Thule people (ancestors of modern Inuit), and the subsequent dispersal and development of distinct Inuit cultures. Ancestors of the Inuit, originating in eastern Siberia, are believed to have migrated to Alaska. Pre-1000 CE
-4000: During its history of 4000 years, China's population remained between 10 million and 20 million for the 1st 2000 years. In the Han dynasty, the figure increased to 59 million. At the beginning of 17th century, the population decreased to between 10 million and 20 million because of war and social disorders.
-4000[India] Mahabharata's Indraprastha, painted grey ware and red ware.
-4000: [Space] From 4000 to 1500 BC the equinox was within the constellation Taurus, and therefore, this constellation was attached great importance. The 4500 year old sky tablet of the neolithic Tal-Qadi Temple in Malta is thought to display the Golden Gate of the Ecliptic. The Golden Gate of the Ecliptic is an asterism in the constellation Taurus that has been known for several thousand years. The constellation is built by the two eye-catching open star clusters of the Pleiades and the Hyades that form the two posts of a virtual gate at the two sides of the ecliptic line.
-4000:[Culture] fortune-telling, the forecasting of future events or the delineation of character by methods not ordinarily considered to have a rational basis. Evidence indicates that forms of fortune-telling were practiced in ancient China, Egypt, Chaldea, and Babylonia as long ago as 4000 bce.
-4000:Paleo-Inuit cultures, such as the Dorset culture, possessed their own distinct tools, hunting techniques, and social structures that differed from the later Thule culture. Paleo-Inuit refers to the ancient inhabitants of the Arctic regions of North America, distinct from the more recent Inuit and Aleut populations. They are characterized by their own unique cultures and technologies that predate the Thule people, who are the ancestors of modern Inuit. The Paleo-Inuit migrations are believed to have occurred from Siberia to North America around 4,000 BCE, and they remained largely genetically isolated after their arrival.
4th Millennium BC (from -4000 to -3001)
-3xxx:[Culture] Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. The majority of scholars accept the "Arabian peninsula" has long been accepted as the original Urheimat (linguistic homeland) of the Semitic languages. Or to be from the Levant. The ancient Semitic-speaking peoples lived in the ancient Near East, including the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity.
-3xxx:[Culture] Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. The majority of scholars accept the "Arabian peninsula" has long been accepted as the original Urheimat (linguistic homeland) of the Semitic languages. Or to be from the Levant. The ancient Semitic-speaking peoples lived in the ancient Near East, including the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity.
-3975:[FnB] Green peppers, also known as bell peppers, originate from Central and South America, where they have been cultivated for thousands of years. Specifically, they belong to the species Capsicum annuum, and were domesticated around 6,000 years ago in Mexico. From their origin, they spread to other parts of the world, particularly with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas.
-3900: The 5.9 kiloyear event occured, which was one of the most intense aridification events during the Holocene Epoch. It ended the Neolithic Subpluvial and probably initiating the most recent desiccation of the Sahara. triggered migration to river valleys, such as from central North Africa to the Nile, which eventually led to the emergence of the first complex, highly organized, state-level societies in the 4th millennium BC ( the years 4000 through 3000 BC).
-3750: The earliest known use of charcoal was for the reduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and Sumerians. Diamonds were probably known as early as 2500 BCE. The first true chemical analyses were made in the 18th century, and in 1789 carbon was listed by Antoine Lavoisier as an element.
-3600: Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals. And shortly after, began to grow and advance rapidly toward refined civilization. Pottery, extensive use of copper, the Mesopotamian process of sun-dried bricks, became common during this time.
towns of the upper Nile River (Upper Egypt) and Nile Delta (Lower Egypt)
-3500:[Food] In Egypt, onions can be traced back to 3500 B.C. There is evidence that the Sumerians were growing onions as early as 2500 B.C. One Sumerian text dated to about 2500 B.C. tells of someone plowing over the city governor's onion patch.
-3750: The earliest known use of charcoal was for the reduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and Sumerians. Diamonds were probably known as early as 2500 BCE. The first true chemical analyses were made in the 18th century, and in 1789 carbon was listed by Antoine Lavoisier as an element.
-3600: Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals. And shortly after, began to grow and advance rapidly toward refined civilization. Pottery, extensive use of copper, the Mesopotamian process of sun-dried bricks, became common during this time.
towns of the upper Nile River (Upper Egypt) and Nile Delta (Lower Egypt)
-3500:[Food] In Egypt, onions can be traced back to 3500 B.C. There is evidence that the Sumerians were growing onions as early as 2500 B.C. One Sumerian text dated to about 2500 B.C. tells of someone plowing over the city governor's onion patch.
-3500:[Food] The history of mint dates back more than 3,500 years with its use attributed to its pleasant aroma and pleasing taste. Consistently over time, mint was used to settle general complaints of the gastrointestinal tract such as gastritis, nausea and flatulence and to cover the taste of unpleasant medicines.
-3300: Bronze Age in Near East. Judaism has its roots as a structured religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions.
-3300:[Space] The oldest Babylonian catalogues of stars and constellations date back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, most notably the Three Stars Each texts and the MUL.APIN, an expanded and revised version based on more accurate observation from around 1000 BC. However, the numerous Sumerian names in these catalogues suggest that they built on older, but otherwise unattested, Sumerian traditions of the Early Bronze Age. (2015, Apr 21)
-3200: The Invention of Writing: The invention of writing, around 3200 BCE, was a revolutionary development, enabling the recording of knowledge, history, and communication across time and space. This facilitated the transmission of ideas, the development of complex administrative systems, and the preservation of cultural heritage. (the most distinguished turning points in human history)
-3200: The Invention of Writing: The invention of writing, around 3200 BCE, was a revolutionary development, enabling the recording of knowledge, history, and communication across time and space. This facilitated the transmission of ideas, the development of complex administrative systems, and the preservation of cultural heritage. (the most distinguished turning points in human history)
-3200: Uruk, the world's first city located in southern Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) was home to 50,000 inhabitants. spreaded in 450 hectare and encircled by a 9.5km city wall.
-3200: Iran founded. Aryan = Iran
-3200: Iran founded. Aryan = Iran
-3102: [Mahabharata] The 18-day Kurukshetra War ended, transition to Kali Yuga. Despite only spanning eighteen days, the war narrative forms more than a quarter of the book, suggesting its relative importance within the entire epic, which spans decades of the warring families. The narrative describes individual battles and deaths of various heroes of both sides, military formations, war diplomacy, meetings and discussions among the characters, and the weapons used.
-3150:[History] Ancient Egypt starts (-3150 to -332)
-3150:[Botany][FnB][Food] Melons are believed to have originated in Africa and Asia, with different species and varieties possibly originating in distinct locations. While some theories point to a Southwest Asian origin (particularly Iran and India) for the Cucumis melo species, others suggest an African origin. Watermelons, another type of melon, are thought to have originated in Central Africa, according to the theory of continental drift. Cucumis melo - This species, which includes muskmelons, cantaloupes, and honeydews, has a complex origin story. While some research suggests a Southwest Asian origin, others propose an African origin. Watermelons are believed to have originated in Central Africa. Muskmelon is thought to have originated in southeastern Africa and peninsular India. Melons were among the earliest plants to be domesticated in the Old World, with evidence of cultivation in ancient Egypt.
-3150:[Music] A rattle is a type of percussion instrument which produces a sound when shaken. Rattles are described in the Hornbostel–Sachs system as Shaken Idiophones or Rattles (112.1).
-3150:[Geography] Ancient Egypt was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology),[1] when Upper and Lower Egypt were amalgamated by Menes, who is believed by the majority of Egyptologists to have been the same person as Narmer.[2] The history of ancient Egypt unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by the "Intermediate Periods" of relative instability. These stable kingdoms existed in one of three periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age; the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age; or the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.
-3180:[Travel] The settlement consists of eight stone houses and was inhabited between roughly 3180 and 2500 B.C., making Skara Brae (aka Scottish Pompeii) one of the oldest agriculture villages in the UK (discovered in 1850). Some believe that the villagers were Picts, a people of unknown origin who settled in eastern and northern Scotland near the end of the British Iron Age. But archaeological findings have shown that the people who lived here could have lived been much earlier than that.
-3150: Narmer, an ancient Egyptian king of Upper Egypt famoused as the Unifier of Egypt or the First Pharaoh, defeated his enemies on the Nile Delta and merged both the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt under his single rule. Hence, the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty I) came into existence which marked the first series of Egyptian kings to rule over a unified Egypt. [Egypt's Prehistory timeline ends, Ancient Egypt timeline starts]
-3138:[India] The mythological city of Dwarka was submerged around 3138 BC.
-3100:[History] Early Dynastic Period or Archaic Period in Egypt till -2600.
-3100:[History] Early Dynastic Period or Archaic Period in Egypt till -2600.
-3100 to -30 (1/4: Egyptian Culture):[Anthro][Culture] Egyptian mythology was completely intertwined with the state and the Pharaoh, who was viewed as a living god (Horus).
-3100:[Anthro][Culture] Unification of Egypt by King Menes; early myths of Osiris, Isis, and Ra solidify.
-3100:The Unification of Egypt (c. 3100 BCE) The Unification of Egypt Key Context: Egypt was originally divided into Upper Egypt (southern region) and Lower Egypt (northern region) along the Nile River Significance: The unification of Egypt under King Narmer (also known as Menes) around 3100 BCE marked the beginning of one of the longest-lasting civilizations in history. Narmer is traditionally believed to have been the first pharaoh to unify the two regions into a centralized kingdom. Why It’s Famous: It established the First Dynasty of Egypt, laying the foundations for Egyptian civilization. The concept of divine kingship emerged, with pharaohs seen as intermediaries between gods and people. Major Consequences: The unification allowed for large-scale projects, such as irrigation systems, pyramids, and temples. Egypt developed advanced systems of writing (hieroglyphics), mathematics, and architecture. A stable government and surplus of food from the Nile made Egypt a dominant power for centuries. Long-Term Impact: Ancient Egypt’s influence can be seen in architecture, religion, and art throughout history. The unified kingdom lasted for thousands of years, making major contributions to human civilization.
-3100:The Minoans - The Minoan civilization (ruled for 2000 years) developed from the local Neolithic culture around 3100 BC, with complex urban settlements beginning around 2000 BC. After c. 1450 BC, they came under the cultural and perhaps political domination of the mainland Mycenaean Greeks, forming a hybrid culture which lasted until around 1100 BC.
The modern term "Minoan" is derived from the name of the mythical King Minos, who the Classical Greeks believed to have ruled Knossos in the distant past. It was popularized by Arthur Evans, possibly drawing on an earlier suggestion by Karl Hoeck. It is a modern coinage and not used by the Minoans, whose name for themselves is unknown.
-3100:[Tourism][UK] Stonehenge originated on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, constructed by ancient Neolithic and Bronze Age communities in phases spanning from about 3100 BC to 1600 BC. Some 5,000 years (Jul 2026) have passed since the Neolithic people of the Salisbury Plain stood up the slabs that compose Stonehenge, and even after centuries of study, we're still not quite sure why or how. One clue is that upon the summer solstice, its Heel Stone—the squat rock at right—aligns perfectly with the sun and the monument's centre point. Many archaeologists believe this was part of its function as a primitive star observatory—but other theories abound, including that it was designed for meditation, burial, or even great acoustics. The massive stones of Stonehenge were transported through extraordinary human coordination, maritime navigation, and land sledges, completely debunking older myths that they were moved entirely by Ice Age glaciers. Neolithic builders exploited Britain's complex coastlines, river networks, and ancient pathways to transport stones weighing up to 26 tons over distances ranging from 20 to 450 miles. The central, six-ton Altar Stone holds the record for the longest journey, originating from the Orcadian Basin in northeast Scotland—at least 450 miles (750 km) away from Salisbury Plain. The smaller, 2-to-4-ton bluestones were tracked directly to the Preseli Hills in western Wales, roughly 140 to 180 miles away. Human Horsepower: Modern experimental archaeology proves that pulling a single 30-ton sarsen stone across this distance would require a highly disciplined crew of at least 100 to 150 people pulling in unison.
-3100:[silvics] Crocus plants are native to woodland, scrub, and meadow habitats ranging from sea level to alpine tundra across the Mediterranean, North Africa, southern and central Europe, the Aegean islands, the Middle East, and Central Asia as far as western China. Civilizations such as the Minoans, Egyptians, and ancient Greeks cultivated crocuses as early as the Bronze Age, primarily to produce the spice and dye saffron from Crocus sativus. The Saffron Crocus (Crocus sativus): This specific autumn-blooming species does not occur naturally in the wild. It is a sterile triploid plant that depends entirely on human propagation through its corms (underground storage stems). Evidence suggests it was first domesticated in ancient Greece from wild ancestors like Crocus cartwrightianus.
30th century BC - started the first day of -3100 and ended the last day of -3001.
3rd Millennium BC (from -3000 to -2001).
The 3rd millennium BCE spans the years from 3000 BCE to 2001 BCE.
The 3rd millennium BCE is considered the beginning of the Bronze Age, with the use of bronze tools and weapons becoming more prevalent.
The world population is estimated to have doubled during this millennium, reaching approximately 30 million.
A shift in precipitation patterns around the world is believed to have impacted nomadic populations in Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe.
The Old Kingdom period in Egypt reached its peak during this millennium, with notable achievements in architecture, such as the construction of the pyramids.
The rise of city-states and the desire for expansion characterized the Near East. Imperialism and the expansion of Indo-European populations into Anatolia, Europe, and Central Asia also occurred.
The Cycladic civilization in the Aegean Sea (between Greece and Turkey) emerged during this time.
The Newgrange tomb in Ireland was also built during the 3rd millennium BCE.
The construction of Stonehenge in England began during this period, starting with a circular ditch and bank with wooden posts.
The Indus Valley region, in the east, also maintained merchant enclaves in Central Asia and possibly Mesopotamia.
-3xxx: [FnB] Oregano, native to the Mediterranean and Western Asia, boasts a rich history intertwined with ancient civilizations and culinary traditions. Its origins are deeply rooted in Greek mythology, where it was believed to be created by the goddess Aphrodite as a symbol of joy. The name "oregano" itself, derived from Greek words meaning "mountain joy," reflects its association with the mountainous landscapes where it thrives.
-3xxx: The Birth of Civilization (c. 3000 BCE) Mesopotamia Key Context: The emergence of the world’s first complex societies in Mesopotamia (Sumerians), Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China Significance: The birth of civilization marked the transition from small, nomadic groups of hunter-gatherers to large, settled communities with organized governance, religion, writing systems, and economies. The earliest civilizations arose in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), often called the “Cradle of Civilization,” around 3000 BCE, with cities like Ur, Uruk, and Babylon. Why It’s Famous: It laid the foundation for modern society by introducing key developments like writing (cuneiform), codified laws, agriculture, and trade. The invention of writing allowed the recording of history, literature, and administrative records. Key Features: Agriculture: Surpluses of crops allowed the growth of cities and the division of labor. Governance: Early forms of kingship, bureaucracy, and law emerged, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BCE). Religious Systems: Temples and priestly classes developed, often centered around polytheistic deities. Long-Term Impact: The formation of early civilizations influenced the development of later societies, including Greece and Rome. Innovations like irrigation, mathematics, and astronomy originated in Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures and spread globally.
-3000[Space] Around 3000 BC, during the age of the ancient Egyptians, the star Thuban in the Draco constellation was the North Star.
-3000:[Space] Inscribed stones and clay writing tablets from Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq) dating to 3000 BC provide the earliest generally accepted evidence for humankind's identification of constellations. (1998) It seems that the bulk of the Mesopotamian constellations were created within a relatively short interval from around 1300 to 1000 BC. Mesopotamian constellations appeared later in many of the classical Greek constellations. (2006)
-3000:[Physics][Math][Research] The formalization of odds and chance was perhaps earliest done by the Chinese 3,000 years ago. (randomness)
-3000: Sanskrit is the classical language of India, dating back to 3000 BC.
-3000: Harrapan civilization, flourish till 600BC. Europe had the oilseeds of mustard and Rapeseed since the fifteenth century. 'Rai' was introduced into India from China. Rai spread to other Asian countries like Afghanistan from India. Mustard seed ands Rapeseed were grown in the 3000 BC in the Indus valley.
-3000: Sanskrit is the classical language of India, dating back to 3000 BC.
-3000: Harrapan civilization, flourish till 600BC. Europe had the oilseeds of mustard and Rapeseed since the fifteenth century. 'Rai' was introduced into India from China. Rai spread to other Asian countries like Afghanistan from India. Mustard seed ands Rapeseed were grown in the 3000 BC in the Indus valley.
The name Bharat was used for a group of people (tribe) who lived in the North-West around the river Sindhu, and were mentioned in Rigveda. [Bharat-Bharatvanshi-Bharatasantati]
Aryans invaded India through Tochi-Kurram pass- Rigveda, and called Bharat as Aryavarta.
Period before 3000 BC is regarded as Pre-History of India.
Aryans invaded India through Tochi-Kurram pass- Rigveda, and called Bharat as Aryavarta.
Period before 3000 BC is regarded as Pre-History of India.
-3000:[Food] As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan civilization. The ancestry of the cultivated olive is unknown. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the earliest evidence of mustard used as a foodstuff comes from ancient Indian and Sumerian texts that stretch back to 3000 B.C. The plant is also mentioned in writing surviving from the ancient Greek and Roman eras, as well as in the Bible.
-3000: Archaeological evidence in Knossos, Crete, shows the practice of burying waste in pits as far back as 3000 BC. The first evidence of landfills dates back to 3000 BC in Crete, where waste was buried in pits. Later, around 500 BC, Athens established a municipal waste disposal program, requiring residents to transport waste outside the city walls. These early landfills, however, differ significantly from modern sanitary landfills, which emerged much later.
3,000 BCE in the capital city of Knossos on Crete (now in Greece). The ancient Minoan civilization of that era discarded their solid garbage (including ceramic wine cups now thought to have been used on a single-use basis) in large pits, which were then backfilled with earth over several levels.
-3000:The city of Uruk is considered one of the first and most important cities in Mesopotamia. It emerged in Sumer (southern Mesopotamia) during the late fourth millennium BC. By 3000 BC, Uruk had grown into a large, walled city with a significant population.
-3000:The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan (what was once Mesopotamia), constructed around 3,000 BCE. It was part of a reservoir system designed to provide water for the settlement of Jawa. The dam was a gravity dam reinforced with rock fill, an innovative feature for that time. While the Jawa Dam is the earliest known, other notable early dams include the Sadd-el-Kafara Dam in Egypt (around 2700 BCE) and the Lake Homs Dam (Qattinah Dam) in Syria, which is the oldest still functioning dam.
The Assyrians (911-609 BCE), Babylonians, and Persians also built dams for water supply and irrigation, with the Ma'rib Dam in Yemen being a notable example.
-3000: [FnB][Botany] The mango (Mangifera indica) originated in the Indo-Burma region, specifically in the foothills of the Himalayas and the areas bordering the Bay of Bengal in eastern India, Bangladesh, northwestern Myanmar and Thailand. It has been cultivated in South Asia for around 5,000 years. Mangoes were domesticated independently in both South Asia (primarily India) and Southeast Asia. This domestication process led to two distinct genetic populations of modern mangoes, often referred to as the "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type". Wild mangoes still exist in the hills of Assam and surrounding areas in India. Mangoes were spread to other parts of the world by travelers and traders, eventually reaching Africa, West Asia, and Brazil. In India, the mango is not only a popular fruit but also the national fruit, known as the "king of fruits".
-3000:[Culture] The Canaanites were Semitic-speaking peoples who were the ancient inhabitants of the region of Canaan, a land that corresponds to modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. They are known for their polytheistic religion, which included deities like El and Baal, and their development of the first alphabet. The term "Canaanite" also refers to the related family of languages and the cultural and linguistic similarities among diverse groups like the Phoenicians, Israelites, and Philistines who lived in the region. Key Aspects of Canaanite Civilization: Location: Occupied the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean) during the Bronze Age, from approximately 3000 BCE to 1200 BCE. Language: Spoke Canaanite languages, a branch of the Northwest Semitic languages. Society: Organized into independent city-states ruled by kings. Religion: A polytheistic religion with a pantheon of gods including El (the creator god), Baal (the storm god), and fertility goddesses like Anat and Asherah. Writing: Developed the world's first alphabet, a simpler writing system that influenced later alphabets. Cultural Connections: Part of a broader cultural and linguistic family of Semitic peoples, including the Phoenicians, Amorites, and early Israelites. Historical Context and Legacy: Biblical Accounts: The Hebrew Bible portrays Canaanites as the indigenous inhabitants of the "Promised Land" before the Israelite conquest. Archaeological Evidence: Shows that the region was inhabited by diverse Semitic peoples who developed complex societies and cities. Transformation: The Late Bronze Age collapse saw the decline of urban Canaanite society, leading to transformations and the emergence of new groups like the Phoenicians and Israelites. Linguistic Heritage: The Canaanite language family, particularly Phoenician and Hebrew, forms the foundation for many modern Semitic languages.
-3000:[crime] The first six-sided dice are developed in Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt.
-3000:[silvics] Aquatic Plants - Suryamukhee: Native to North America. The wild pre-evolutionary form of the sunflower was a highly branched, multi-headed weed. Native Americans domesticated it around 3,000 BCE, selectively breeding it into the single-headed, large-seeded giant plant we see today. Learn how humans selectively bred some of flowers (like Kesar and Mogra) from their wild forms?
30th century BC - started the first day of -3000 and ended the last day of -2901.
-29xx: use of Flag (or 'ध्वज' in Sanskrit) in India was found. Perhaps it could be the first flag.
The Embelem on the flag of the arjuna chariot was Hanuman. The flag was called "Kapi Dhwaj". There is a specific description about this flag in Mahabharatha, since it has a certain importance. Also prior to Mahabharata, in the Great Epic Ramayana, there is a reference to a flag ('Dhwaj' in Sanskrit) for both Lord Rama's Ayodhya Kingdom and Ravana's Lanka Kingdom. If we come to Vedas, in the Atharva Veda it is mentioned that Indra had a Flag of his own called 'Indra Dhwaj'. There is no hard pictorial evidence for these references but the abundant use of the Sanskrit word 'Dhwaj' in almost all the scriptures is nothing but a flag which is attached to either the king's Chariot or at the entrance of his palace.
-2900: Indus Valley Civilization.
The Embelem on the flag of the arjuna chariot was Hanuman. The flag was called "Kapi Dhwaj". There is a specific description about this flag in Mahabharatha, since it has a certain importance. Also prior to Mahabharata, in the Great Epic Ramayana, there is a reference to a flag ('Dhwaj' in Sanskrit) for both Lord Rama's Ayodhya Kingdom and Ravana's Lanka Kingdom. If we come to Vedas, in the Atharva Veda it is mentioned that Indra had a Flag of his own called 'Indra Dhwaj'. There is no hard pictorial evidence for these references but the abundant use of the Sanskrit word 'Dhwaj' in almost all the scriptures is nothing but a flag which is attached to either the king's Chariot or at the entrance of his palace.
-2900: Indus Valley Civilization.
-2900:[India][FnB] IVC - an alcohol named Sura; intro of the curry-based dishes;
29th century BC - started the first day of -2900 and ended the last day of -2801.
-2800: The first evidence of road development in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to approximately around 2800 BC in the ancient cities of Harrapa and Mohenjodaro of the Indus Valley Civilization. Ruling emperors and monarchs of ancient and medieval India continued to construct roads to connect the cities.
-2800: The Bell Beaker culture (also described as the Bell Beaker complex or Bell Beaker phenomenon) is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the very beginning of the European Bronze Age. Arising from around 2800 BC, it lasted in Britain until as late as 1800 BC but in continental Europe only until 2300 BC, when it was succeeded by the Unetice culture.
-2800:[Technology] From ancient times, chemical additives were used to facilitate the mechanical washing of textile fibers with water. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon.
28th century BC - started the first day of -2800 and ended the last day of -2701.
-2700:The earliest Mesopotamian ruler known from historical records is Enmebaragesi, who reigned as king of Kish around 2700 BCE. While some earlier figures like Alulim are mentioned in legends, Enmebaragesi is the first whose reign is supported by contemporary inscriptions.
-2700: The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs which are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker.-2700:[Food] A question that comes to mind now is which one of the two originated first, tea or coffee? Tea was first prepared in China around 2700 BC, making it one of the world's earliest beverages. Evidence shows that tea was consumed for a good thousand years before coffee was cultivated for the very first time.
-26xx:
-2686: The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt ended after around 450 years. (464 years to be exact).
27th century BC - started the first day of -2700 and ended the last day of -2601.
26th century BC - started the first day of -2600 and ended the last day of -2501.
-2589: Archaeologists believe Egypt’s great pyramids are the work of the Old Kingdom society that rose to prominence in the Nile Valley after 3000 B.C. Historical analysis tells us that the Egyptians built the Giza Pyramids in a span of 85 years between 2589 and 2504 BC.
-2500 to -Present (2/4: Hindu Culture):[Anthro][Culture] Unlike the others, Hindu culture survived into the modern era, continuously evolving from ancient rituals to a living global religion.
-2500:[Anthro][Culture] Indus Valley Civilisation develops early spiritual symbols (like the Pashupati seal).
-2500:[Anthro][Culture] The Pyramid Texts are carved inside tombs, creating the oldest surviving written religious texts in the world.
-2500:The earliest references to the Euphrates come from cuneiform texts found in Shuruppak and pre-Sargonic Nippur in southern Iraq and date to the mid-3rd millennium BCE. The mid-3rd millennium BCE spans roughly from 2500 BCE to 2250 BCE. This period falls within the Early to Middle Bronze Age, a time of significant development in ancient civilizations.
-2500:[Women] Queen Kubaba or goddess Kubaba, likely around 2500 BCE, was a Sumerian queen of Kish, and the only woman listed as a ruler in the Sumerian King List. She is notable for potentially rising from a tavern keeper to a queen, ruling for a century during a time of peace and prosperity.
-2500: Semitic-speaking peoples had become widely dispersed throughout western Asia. In Phoenicia they became seafarers. In Mesopotamia they blended with the civilization of Sumer. The Hebrews settled with other Semitic-speaking peoples in Palestine.
-2500:[India] Terracotta (Clay-Based Unglazed or Glazed Ceramic) Water Pot of Indus Valley Civilization.
-2500:[Culture] Every year around October and November, Hindus around the world celebrate Diwali, or Deepavali—a festival of lights that stretches back more than 2,500 years.
-2500:[India] First Urbanization (c. 2500–1900 BCE): Driven by the Indus Valley Civilization with sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Dholavira. Noted for grid iron layouts, advanced covered drainage, public granaries, and standardized bricks.
-2500:[geo][ety] The name "Caucasus" originates from ancient Greek writers like Herodotus and Aeschylus around 2,500 years ago, while the physical region represents one of the oldest human settlement areas outside Africa. Ancient Greek: Writers used the word Kaukasos to describe the high, snow-covered mountains at the edge of the known world.Hittite Roots: Historians believe the name may come from Kaz-kaz, an ancient Hittite term for a tribe living near the Black Sea.Modern Definition: The broader political and regional use of the term grew largely from later History of the Caucasus under Russian administrative expansion. Local Gene Pools: DNA studies show that ancient Bronze Age groups in the region kept a stable local genetic core while mixing with groups from Anatolia and the Eurasian Steppe. Linguistic Riches: Over 50 distinct ethnic groups and dozens of indigenous languages developed here, making it one of the most culturally varied places on Earth.
25th century BC - started the first day of -2500 and ended the last day of -2401.
-2400: The Shahdad Standard is currently the oldest known flag in the world. The squared bronze flag from Shahdad, Iran dates back to this year.
-23xx:
-2300: Babylon, a major city of ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq region) founded in the fertile plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The city was built upon the Euphrates and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylonians invented Algebra.
24th century BC - started the first day of -2400 and ended the last day of -2301.
-2300: The phrase "Seven Seas"first appeared in a hymn written in around 2300 BC in the city of Sumer, and was later taken up by the Greeks and Romans. In ancient times, seven was sometimes used to indicate "many" or "several". Seven is the biblical representation of completeness. The phrase commonly referred to the following seas: Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, (including its marginal seas, notably the Adriatic Sea (which is listed separately among the Seven Seas) and the Aegan Sea.)and Indian Ocean.
-22xx:
-21xx:-2100:[Maths] There is also evidence of games of chance played by ancient Egyptians, Hindus and Chinese. The Chinese used dice before the Europeans, and have a long history of playing games of chance. (randomness)
-2100: Xia Dynasty of China lasted till 1600 BC. Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, 3 Kingdoms, Wei, Shu, and Wu followed the pattern.
23rd century BC - started the first day of -2300 and ended the last day of -2201.
-2200:[Tourism][UK] Construction Timeline 3100 BC: Early phase began with a circular earthwork bank, a ditch, and postholes dug with deer antler tools.2600–2400 BC: Massive sarsen stones (local sandstone blocks weighing up to 25 tons) were erected in the iconic post-and-lintel circle.2400–2200 BC: Smaller bluestones from western Wales were added and rearranged.Northeast Scotland: Recent geological findings show the central Altar Stone traveled at least 430–450 miles from northeast Scotland.Builders and PurposeNeolithic farmers: Built by early farming groups and migrating populations rather than Roman or Celtic Druids.Ceremonial use: Functioned primarily as a cremation cemetery, sacred gathering space, and astronomical calendar aligned with solstices.
22nd century BC - started the first day of -2200 and ended the last day of -2101.
-2100: Xia Dynasty of China lasted till 1600 BC. Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, 3 Kingdoms, Wei, Shu, and Wu followed the pattern.
-2100:[Space][Research] Xiangfen Astronomical Observatory, Xiangfen County, Linfen, Shanxi Province, China
21st century BC - started the first day of -2100 and ended the last day of -2001.
2nd Millennium BC (from -2000 to -1001)
-2334:The Akkadian Empire is generally recognized as the oldest empire in history. It was established in Mesopotamia around 2334 BC by Sargon of Akkad. This empire united the Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule, marking a significant step in the development of political structures and the concept of empire.
-2300:[crime] The earliest recorded evidence of gambling occurs in Ancient China, where archaeologists unearthed wooden tiles used in games of chance.
-2028:[Culture][Business] Receipt for garments sent by boat to Dilmun in the 1st year of Ibbi-Sin's rule, circa 2028 BCE.
2nd millennium BC begins (-2000 to -1001)
-2000 (Jan 1): 2nd millennium BC starts.
-2000:[History] The 2nd millennium BC spanned the years 2000 BC to 1001 BC. In the Ancient Near East, it marks the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age. The Ancient Near Eastern cultures are well within the historical era: The first half of the millennium is dominated by the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and Babylonia. The alphabet develops. At the center of the millennium, a new order emerges with Mycenaean Greek dominance of the Aegean and the rise of the Hittite Empire. The end of the millennium sees the Bronze Age collapse and the transition to the Iron Age. World population rose steadily, possibly surpassing the 100 million mark for the first time.
-2000:[History] Other regions of the world are still in the prehistoric period. In Europe, the Beaker culture introduces the Bronze Age, presumably associated with Indo-European expansion. The Indo-Iranian expansion reaches the Iranian plateau and onto the Indian subcontinent (Vedic India), propagating the use of the chariot. Mesoamerica enters the Pre-Classic (Olmec) period. North America is in the late Archaic stage. In Maritime Southeast Asia, the Austronesian expansion reaches Micronesia. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the Bantu expansion begins.
-2000:[military] The earliest examples of expeditionary warfare come from the Sea Peoples, a term used for a confederation of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control Egyptian territory during the late 19th dynasty, and especially during Year 8 of Ramesses III of the 20th dynasty.
-2000:[APAC][SEA] Brunei is a tiny nation on the island of Borneo, in 2 distinct sections surrounded by Malaysia and the South China Sea. It's known for its beaches and biodiverse rainforest, much of it protected within reserves. The capital, Bandar Seri Begawan, is home to the opulent Jame’Asr Hassanil Bolkiah mosque and its 29 golden domes. The capital's massive Istana Nurul Iman palace is the residence of Brunei’s ruling sultan.
Areas comprising what is now Brunei participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archaeological research. The trading network existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BC to 1000 AD. The settlement known as Vijayapura was a vassal-state to the Buddhist Srivijaya empire and was thought to be located in Borneo's Northwest which flourished in the 7th Century. Vijayapura itself upon earlier in its history, was a rump state of the fallen multi-ethnic: Austronesian, Austroasiatic and Indian, Funan Civilization; previously located in what is now Cambodia. This alternative Srivijaya known as Vijayapura referring to Brunei, was known to Arabic sources as "Sribuza".
-2000:[Food] Raisin grapes were grown as early as 2000 bce in Persia and Egypt, and dried grapes are mentioned in the Bible (Numbers 6:3) during the time of Moses. David (Israel's future king) was presented with “a hundred clusters of raisins” (1 Samuel 25:18), probably sometime during the period 1110–1070 BCE.
-2000:[Research][Chemistry] Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians. The earliest known lenses, made from polished crystal, often quartz, date from as early as 2000 BC from Crete (Archaeological Museum of Heraclion, Greece). Lenses from Rhodes date around 700 BC, as do Assyrian lenses such as the Nimrud lens. The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. These practical developments were followed by the development of theories of light and vision by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers, and the development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world. The word optics comes from the ancient Greek word ὀπτική (optikē), meaning "appearance, look". Classical optics is divided into two main branches: geometrical (or ray) optics and physical (or wave) optics. In geometrical optics, light is considered to travel in straight lines, while in physical optics, light is considered as an electromagnetic wave.
-2000:[Geography] The Rig Veda, composed between 1700-1100 BCE, refers to a settlement in the Kabul area. Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer, also mentioned it in the second century CE. Kabul's location, commanding important trade routes and mountain passes, contributed to its long history and significance. The city is thought to have existed during the Bronze Age and was likely inhabited before the time of the Rig Veda. The area was part of the Achaemenid Empire, which was later conquered by Alexander the Great. Throughout its history, Kabul has been a part of various empires and kingdoms, including the Kushan Empire, the Kabul Shahi, and the Mughal Empire. Kabul's exact founding date is unknown, but it is believed to have been established sometime between 2000 and 1500 BCE. The city is mentioned in ancient texts like the Rig Veda and by Ptolemy, dating back thousands of years, according to New World Encyclopedia and Britannica.
-2000:[crime] The history of manufacturing illicit liquor—often called moonshine, poteen, hooch, or bootleg alcohol—spans thousands of years. It is driven by tax evasion, government prohibitions, and cultural traditions. Ancient & Medieval Origins (Pre-1600s) - Early distillation techniques emerge in Mesopotamia and China, primarily used for perfumes and medicinal balms rather than recreational drinking.
20th century BC - started the first day of -2000 and ended the last day of -1901.
-1974:[tour][de][geo] Hintersee lake in Ramsau, Germany was formed approximately 3,500 to 4,000 years ago when a massive rock slide from the Hochkalter mountain range crashed down and dammed the Klausbach river. Rock slide: About 15 million cubic meters of debris fell into the Klausbach valley.The Magic Forest: The massive pile of fallen boulders created the scenic Zauberwald (Enchanted Forest) next to the water.Rerouting: Around 1900, the Klausbach stream was rerouted around the lake to prevent it from filling up with silt and mud.
[tour][de]
19th century BC - started the first day of -1900 and ended the last day of -1801.
-1878:[GeoPolitics][Business] Historians have concluded that the Egyptian Pharaoh Senausert III was the first to think of connecting the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. (Suez Canal)
-1800: Beginning of the Shang dynasty in China.
-1800:Scholars state that the historical Aryans, the Vedic period Bronze Age tribes who lived in Iran, Afghanistan, and the northern Indian subcontinent—composers of the Rig Veda and Avesta—were unlikely to be blond or blue-eyed, contrary to the proponents of Aryanism and Nordicism.
-1800:The White Huns (aka Hephthalites) are completely unrelated to the Indo-Aryans who migrated to the Indian subcontinent, and were simply a mix of various Iranic and Turkic nomads. The Indo-Aryans migrated to the Indian Subcontinent at around 1800 BC, while the Hephthalites only emerged around 400 AD.
-1813: Abraham, originally Abram (later Ibrahim) was born. He is the first of the three patriarchs of Judaism. His story features in the holy texts of all the Abrahamic religions and Abraham plays a prominent role as an example of faith in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He died aged 175 and buried by his sons Issac and Ishmael in the cave of Machpelah near Mamre.
-1813: Abraham, originally Abram (later Ibrahim) was born. He is the first of the three patriarchs of Judaism. His story features in the holy texts of all the Abrahamic religions and Abraham plays a prominent role as an example of faith in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He died aged 175 and buried by his sons Issac and Ishmael in the cave of Machpelah near Mamre.
The name Abraham, of Hebrew origin, generally means "father of many" or "father of a multitude". It's derived from the biblical figure Abram, whose name God changed to Abraham, signifying his role as the patriarch of numerous descendants.
The name Isaac, of Hebrew origin, means "he laughs" or "he will laugh". It is derived from the Hebrew word "yitzvah". In the Bible, Isaac is the son of Abraham and Sarah, and his birth was a source of great joy and laughter for his parents.
-1894:The Babylonian period started and lasted for 300 years. The Babylonians had two major periods of rule: the Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1894-1595 BC) and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (c. 626-539 BC). The Old Babylonian period is most known for the reign of King Hammurabi, who established a vast empire and developed the Code of Hammurabi. The Neo-Babylonian period, also known as the Chaldean Empire, saw Babylon regain its prominence and cultural influence under the Chaldean dynasty.
18th century BC - started the first day of -1800 and ended the last day of -1701.
-175x: Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi created a short-lived empire, succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Old Assyrian Empire; However, the Babylonian empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi.
-16xx:
-1680: Ahmes
-1700:[crime] 1700 BCE (Ancient Mesopotamia): Early alehouses emerge. The Code of Hammurabi includes strict laws regulating tavern keepers, showing that early drinking dens were already centers of community life and official scrutiny.
-1700:[tour][de][hike] Lake Eibsee in Bavaria, Germany, was formed around 3,600 years ago by a massive rockslide from the Zugspitze. The Last Ice Age: The original depression formed when the Isar-Loisach glacier retreated and filled with meltwater.The Massive Landslide: Between 1700 BCE and 1400 BCE, a huge rockslide sent 350 million cubic meters of debris crashing into the basin.Islands and Shallows: This impact created 29 hollows and 8 islands, making the lake's bed geologically younger than the water basin itself.Name Origin: The name "Eibsee" comes from "Eibe," the German word for the yew trees that once grew thickly along its shores. Private Ownership: Unlike many public lakes, the Eibsee is privately owned. August Terne bought the lake at an auction in 1884 for 10,000 marks. Tourism Beginnings: August Terne turned the isolated fishing spot into a tourist destination by building a guesthouse in 1900. The Eibsee Hotel: Terne's sons built a hotel on the shores in 1913, which was expanded in the 1920s and remains in the family today via the Eibsee Hotel. World War II and After: The German Air Force confiscated the hotel from 1941 to 1945, and U.S. forces used it as a recreation area until 1972 before it returned to the Terne family.
[tour][de] Nestled in the Alps near Germany's highest peak, the elevated lake called the Eibsee is often abustle with visitors. Hikers and beachgoers flock to enjoy the natural splendor, while one of the world's longest tramways draws crowds looking to head higher up the slopes. See the Eibsee from the right angle, though, and the lake's potential for serenity becomes as clear as its emerald waters. Undeveloped islets like this one, Ludwig Island, dot the water's surface near the northern shore—beckoning paddlers and adventurous swimmers for a break from the busy mainland.
17th century BC - started the first day of -1700 and ended the last day of -1601.
-1638: Death of Abraham (175YO), Reign of Ishmael started. According to the Samaritan book Asaṭīr adds "And after the death of Abraham, Ishmael reigned 27 years; And all the children of Nebaot ruled for one year in the lifetime of Ishmael; And for thirty years after his death from the river of Egypt to the river Euphrates; and they built Mecca." Josephus also lists the sons and states that they "...inhabit the lands which are between Euphrates and the Red Sea, the name of which country is Nabathæa. The Targum Onkelos annotates (Genesis 25:16), describing the extent of their settlements: The Ishmaelites lived from Hindekaia (India) to Chalutsa (possibly in Arabia), by the side of Mizraim (Egypt), and from the area around Arthur (Assyria) up towards the north. This description suggests that the Ishmaelites were a widely dispersed group with a presence across a significant portion of the ancient Near East.
-1638:Muslims believe that the Kaaba was built by the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Ismail (Ishmael). They constructed it according to divine instructions as the first house of worship for mankind. The Kaaba is located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the holiest site in Islam.
-1611: Reign of Ishmael ended.
-1600 to -1100:[Anthro][Culture] Mycenaean Greece. Early forms of Greek gods (like Zeus and Poseidon) appear in Linear B clay tablets.
-1600 to -4th Century CE (3/4: Greek Culture):[Anthro][Culture] Greek mythology shifted from early palacecentered religions to the famous democratic citystates that worshipped the Twelve Olympians.
-1600: Abraham died at Hebron???-1600: The earliest written record regarding cancer is found in the Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus and describes breast cancer.
16th century BC - started the first day of -1600 and ended the last day of -1501.
-1581:[Culture] The construction of Mecca finished from the banks of river of Egypt to the river Euphrates
-1570: Beginning of the New Kingdom (or Egyptian Empire). It was Egypt’s most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power.
-1500 to -500:[Anthro][Culture] Vedic Period. The Vedas are composed, focusing on cosmic order (Rta) and elemental gods like Indra, Agni, and Soma.
-1500: Aryan (also, Proto-Indo-European or Indo-Iranian) tribes from the northwest infiltrated the Indian subcontinent. Aryans denote a people speaking an Indo-European language who invaded northern India in the 2nd millennium BC, displacing the Dravidian and other aboriginal peoples.-1500: Vedic Sanskrit was an ancient language of the Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European language family. It is attested in the Vedas and related literature compiled over the period of the mid-2nd (-1500) to mid-1st millennium BCE (-401).
-1500: It was around 1500 to 1000 BC when Ayurveda in India developed. It followed a same developmental phase as the Chinese and the Western medicine (evolving from religious and mythological discipline and then moving into the medical system). The two schools of medicine that was found during this period were the Atreya (school of the physicians) and Dhanvantari (school of the surgeons). It was Agnivesha who systematised all the knowledge of Ayurveda from the Vedas which was the edited by Charaka and other scholars, it’s currently known as Charaka Samhita and contains all the knowledge pertaining to the different aspects of Ayurvedic medicines.
-1500:[Technology] The earliest household clocks known, from the archaeological finds, are the sundials (1500 BCE) in Ancient Egypt and ancient Babylonian astronomy. Ancient analemmatic sundials of the same era (about 1500 BCE) and their prototype have been discovered on the territory of modern Russia.
-1500:Hinduism is widely considered the world's oldest religion, with roots tracing back to the Indian subcontinent. While it has no single founder, its origins are linked to the Indus Valley civilization and the Vedic period, with scriptures like the Rigveda dating back to around 1500 BCE. Unlike many other religions, Hinduism didn't originate from the teachings of a specific individual. Instead, it evolved over centuries through the merging of various Indian cultures and traditions.
-1500:[Culture] The Phoenicians were an ancient, Semitic people from the coastal Levant region (modern Lebanon and Syria) known for their mastery of maritime trade and the creation of the first widely used alphabetic script. They lived in independent city-states like Tyre and Sidon, rather than a unified country, and were known for their seafaring skills and trade networks across the Mediterranean. The Greek term "Phoenician" likely refers to their production of a prized purple dye, derived from Murex shellfish. Origins and Identity Canaanite Descendants: The Phoenicians were descendants of the Canaanite people, sharing a common language, religion, and culture. City-States: They lived in independent city-states such as Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Arwad, not a unified empire. Greek Name: The name "Phoenician" was a Greek invention, likely referring to the deep red color of their famous purple dye. Key Contributions and Innovations The Alphabet: The Phoenicians developed the first widely used alphabetic script, which simplified written communication and became the basis for many modern alphabets. Maritime Prowess: They were expert shipbuilders and seafarers, establishing trade routes and colonies throughout the Mediterranean and beyond. Trade and Commerce: Confined to a narrow coastal strip with limited agriculture, they turned to the sea, becoming renowned merchants and "middlemen" in global trade. Major Trading Centers and Colonies Key Cities: Their major cities, including Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, were prosperous maritime trading centers. Mediterranean Network: They linked the Mediterranean shores into a vast network of trading posts and established colonies in various parts of the Mediterranean, including Spain. Sources and Legacy Classical Accounts: Much of our knowledge about the Phoenicians comes from ancient Greek writers like Herodotus, who portrayed them as skilled seafarers and traders. Modern Recognition: The Phoenician legacy continues to be recognized today, with some communities in the region, particularly Christian Lebanese groups, identifying with this illustrious pre-Arab-Islamic past. (they knew about the Gibraltar)
-1500:[crime] Ancient Indian literature, like the Rig Veda, explicitly warns against the addictive nature of dice games.
15th century BC - started the first day of -1500 and ended the last day of -1401.
-1479: the reign of Thutmose III started in the New Kingdom, lasted for 54 years.
-1445: Joseph: Parents: Jacob (Father) · Rachel (Mother); Birthplace: Haran; Died: 1445 BC · Egypt; Spouse: Asenath. Joseph (/ ˈ dʒ oʊ z ɪ f,-s ɪ f /; Hebrew: יוֹסֵף meaning "Increase", Standard Yosef Tiberian Yôsēp̄; Arabic: يوسف Yūsuf or Yūsif; Ancient Greek: Ἰωσήφ Iōsēph) is an important figure in the Bible's Book of Genesis.. In the biblical narrative, Joseph was sold into slavery by his jealous brothers, and rose to become vizier, the second most powerful man in Egypt next to Pharaoh.
Siblings: Dan (Brother) · Levi (Brother) · Benjamin (Brother) · Reuben (Brother) · Judah (Brother) · Asher (Brother) · Simeon (Brother) · Issachar (Brother) · Zebulun (Brother) · Gad (Brother) · Dinah (Sister) · Naphtali (Brother); Children: Ephraim (Son) · Manasseh (Son)
The name Jacob, of Hebrew origin, has several possible meanings including "supplanter", "he who follows", and "may God protect". It is derived from the Hebrew name Ya'aqov, which is associated with the biblical patriarch Jacob who, according to the Book of Genesis, was born grasping his brother Esau's heel. The name is also linked to the Hebrew root "aqab," meaning "to follow" or "to supplant".
-1412:Athens has been inhabited since the Neolithic period, with evidence suggesting human presence as early as the 11th to 7th millennia BCE. The city's history is often traced back to the Mycenaean period (around 1412 BC), when it became an important center and the Acropolis was a major fortress. Around the 15th century BC, Cecrops is credited with organizing the population into 12 federations and founding the city of Athens on the Acropolis.
The name Athen, often a variant of "Athens", is primarily derived from the Greek goddess Athena, and thus carries meanings associated with wisdom, courage, and strategic thinking according to baby name websites. The name also evokes the historical city of Athens, known for its contributions to democracy, philosophy, and the arts.
-1400: Moses: Born: 1400 BC · Ancient Egypt; Death place: Mount Nebo, Jordan; Spouse: Tharbis · Zipporah: Moses, also known as Moshe Rabbenu (later, Moosa), is the most important prophet in Judaism, and an important prophet in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and a number of other Abrahamic religions. In the biblical narrative he was the leader of the Israelites and lawgiver, to whom the authorship of the first five books of the bible, the Torah, or "acquisition of the Torah from heaven," is attributed.
Siblings: Aaron (Brother) · Miriam (Sister)
Parents: Jochebed (Mother) · Amram (Father)
Children: Gershom (Son) · Eliezer (Son).
14th century BC - started the first day of -1400 and ended the last day of -1301.
-13xx:
-1391: Amenhotep III, one of Egypt's most powerful pharaohs ruled from -1391 to -1353.
-1350:[Anthro][Culture] Pharaoh Akhenaten briefly forces monotheism by outlawing all gods except the sundisc, Aten.
-1325:[Food] A well-known archaeological example of almond is the fruits found in Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 B.C.E.), probably imported from the Levant.
-1309s: [FnB] Egyptians started using yeast in their breads. Excavations of ancient Egyptian communities have found bakeries and breweries adjacent to each other. There is some thought that the bakers used the barm, the foam skimmed from the top of the fermenting beer, as a source of yeast for the bread. In -500, it was used in China.-1300: Moses died.
-1300:[APAC] Archaeological evidence, such as pottery fragments, places the arrival of the first settlers, the Lapita people, in the northern islands around 3,000–3,500 years ago. Vanuatu's ancient history begins with settlement by Lapita culture seafaring people from the west (likely New Guinea/Solomon Islands) around 1300–1100 BCE. These Austronesian speakers introduced pottery, farming, and domesticated animals, establishing a diverse Melanesian society that later saw waves of Polynesian influence in the south.
13th century BC - started the first day of -1300 and ended the last day of -1201.
-1292: Ramesside period in Egypt. It is named after the eleven pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses I, founder of the Dynasty XIX (19th Dynasty) of Egypt.
-1274: Judaism founded.
-1235: Athens (modern-day capital of Greece) founded.
-1235: Athens (modern-day capital of Greece) founded.
-1200:[GeoPolitics] Around 1200 BC the eastern Mediterranean was greatly affected by the Bronze Age Collapse, which resulted in the destruction of many cities and trade routes of the Egyptians and the Minoans. Two other notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity are the Greek city-states and Phoenicians, both of whom extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean.
-1200: Ancient Greek historian Herodotus claimed in the 5th century BC that the Etruscans had come to Italy from Lydia, modern day Anatolia in Turkey and some historians assimilate them to the mysterious "People of the Sea", seafaring raiders that warred with the Egyptians in the 12th century BC. [Where does the information about the Etruscans come from?]
-1200: Ancient Greek historian Herodotus claimed in the 5th century BC that the Etruscans had come to Italy from Lydia, modern day Anatolia in Turkey and some historians assimilate them to the mysterious "People of the Sea", seafaring raiders that warred with the Egyptians in the 12th century BC. [Where does the information about the Etruscans come from?]
-1200: The Atharvaveda contains chapters relating to medicine, surgery and magico-religious rites. This Atharvaveda layer of text was likely compiled contemporaneously with Samaveda and Yajurveda, or about 1200 BCE - 1000 BCE.
-1200:[Greece] The period between the end of the Mycenaean civilization (1200 bce) and the death of Alexander the Great (323 bce) that significantly influenced later Western culture in politics, philosophy, and art.
-1200:Stories and laws were initially transmitted orally among the Israelites. The earliest parts of the Old Testament, such as the Song of Deborah and the Samson story, are believed to have been composed during the early Iron Age (c. 1200 BCE). The Bible originated from a collection of ancient texts written over centuries, initially passed down orally and then recorded in written form. The Old Testament, the Hebrew Bible, was written and compiled from around 1200 BC to 165 BC. The New Testament, composed of writings by early Christians, was written in the first century AD. The texts were written on papyrus scrolls and later copied onto vellum and parchment.
-1200:No human is known to have lived to be 1000 years old. The biblical figure Methuselah is often cited as the oldest person in the Bible, but even his lifespan is recorded as 969 years, according to Britannica. While some religious texts and traditions mention individuals with incredibly long lifespans, there is no scientific evidence to support the existence of anyone living to be 1000 years old or beyond. The longest documented and verified human lifespan is that of Jeanne Calment, who lived to be 122 years and 164 days.
-1200:[Mexico] The Olmecs were the earliest known major Mesoamerican civilization, flourishing in the tropical lowlands of modern-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco from approximately 1200 to 400 BCE. Often referred to as the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica, the Olmecs established foundational cultural, artistic, and religious practices that influenced later civilizations, including the Maya and the Aztecs.
-1200:[Mexico] Pre-Columbian Period (c. 2500 BCE – 1521 CE) in Mexico. The Olmecs, considered the "mother culture," established cities with monumental architecture around 1200 BCE.Mexico's history spans thousands of years, beginning with advanced indigenous civilizations like the Olmecs, Maya, and Aztecs. Following the 1521 Spanish conquest by Hernán Cortés, it became the colony of New Spain. Mexico achieved independence in 1821, subsequently navigating territorial losses, revolutions, and modernization to become a federal republic. The Maya developed sophisticated calendars and writing, while Teotihuacan grew into a massive trade center.
-1200:[Mexico] Heartland and Cities: The Olmec core area was a, humid, swampy region. Their main urban centers, which served as ceremonial and political hubs rather than dense residential cities, included San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán (1200–900 BCE), La Venta (900–400 BCE), and Tres Zapotes.
12th century BC - started the first day of -1200 and ended the last day of -1101.
-1184: Fall of Troy. The Trojan War was a great series of battles fought between the Greeks and the Trojans sometime in the Late Bronze Age (1200–c. 500 BC). According to the stories from Homer’s Iliad, it was the greatest war of its time that included a multitude of exemplary warriors and even a few meddling Greek gods.
-1145: The earliest credible clinical evidence of smallpox is found in the smallpox-like disease in medical writings from ancient India.
-1100: The Villanovan culture was the earliest Iron Age culture of central and northern Italy.
-1100: The Villanovan culture was the earliest Iron Age culture of central and northern Italy.
-1150:[Maths] The problems concerned with the tossing of several coins were considered in the I Ching, one of the oldest Chinese mathematical texts, that probably dates to 1150 BC. The two principal elements yin and yang were combined in the I Ching in various forms to produce Heads and Tails permutations of the type HH, TH, HT, etc. and the Chinese seem to have been aware of Pascal's triangle long before the Europeans formalized it in the 17th century. However, Western philosophy focused on the non-mathematical aspects of chance and randomness until the 16th century. (randomness)
-1177:[Culture][Sufi] Lal Shahbaz Qalandar born in year 1177 in Marwand to parents from Baghdad, Iraq. He later settled in Sehwan, Sindh under the reign of the Ghaznavid and Ghurids (today's Punjab, Pakistan) and died aged 97YO in year 1274 in Sehwan (present-day Sindh, Pakistan). He was referred to as Jhulelal (red bridegroom) because he was promised marriage to a daughter of his friend, but the friend died and later his friend's son refused to allow the agreed upon marriage, which caused Lal Shahbaz Qalandar grief.
-1159: In Greek mythology, Agamemnon was a king of Mycenae who commanded the Achaeans during the Trojan War. He was the son of King Atreus and Queen Aerope, the brother of Menelaus, the husband of Clytemnestra, and the father of Iphigenia, Iphianassa, Electra, Laodike, Orestes and Chrysothemis.
-1160: At the Start of the War (Iliad): Odysseus was roughly 35 to 40 years old. He had already been married to Penelope for a few years and fathered an infant or toddler son, Telemachus (whom he famously tried to avoid leaving behind by feigning madness). Homer never gives an exact numerical age for Odysseus, but context clues from the epics imply he was roughly in his mid-to-late 30s when the Trojan War began, in his mid-to-late 40s when the war ended, and in his mid-50s when he finally returned to Ithaca.
-- 10 year Trojan War started --
-1194:[war] The Trojan War is traditionally dated to around 1200 BCE, specifically spanning from 1194 BCE to 1184 BCE according to ancient Greek chronographers like Eratosthenes. This legendary ten-year conflict is set near the end of the Late Bronze Age, coinciding with the historical Bronze Age collapse. Matches the archaeological layer of Troy VIIa in modern-day Turkey, which showed signs of a massive fire and destruction during the period of regional upheaval. (archaeological excavations at Hisarlik)
-- 10 year Trojan War ended --
-1184: Upon Returning Home (The Odyssey): After an additional 10 years of wandering at sea, Odysseus was in his mid-to-late 50s—described by other characters in the text as a seasoned, mature warrior (omogeronda, or an "early-old man") who was nonetheless still strong enough to string his mighty bow.
1st Millennium BC (from -1000 to -1)
11th century BC - started the first day of -1100 and ended the last day of -1001.
-1xxx:[Tourism][EU] A Middle Age fortress crowns a hill above a sapphire blue lake in the Julian Alps of northwestern Slovenia. The origins of Bled Castle date to the 11th century, and it's said to be the country's oldest castle. The lake itself, lying in the middle of some of the highest peaks in the region, has attracted visitors to its superbly beautiful shores for centuries. Traditional gondola-like boats known as 'pletnas' ply the water, and a good number of the oarsmen are descended from the original 22 men given royal decree to pilot the boats in 1740 by Empress Maria Theresa. Most pletnas make stops at Bled Island—seen in the upper right side of the lake in our image. It's considered good luck to be married in the island's 17th-century church, so weddings are common here, although the incredible setting is also a big part of the draw.
-1000s:[Food] In ancient Persia, saffron (Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') was cultivated at Derbena and Isfahan in the 10th century BC. There, Persian saffron threads have been found interwoven into ancient Persian royal carpets and funeral shrouds. It likely was first discovered in Bronze Age Greece, yet it now grows throughout Europe and Asia.
-1000s: It has been speculated that Egyptian traders brought smallpox to India during the 1st millennium BC, where it remained as an endemic human disease for at least 2000 years.
-1000: World population begins to rise steadily, reaching some 50 million.
-1000: The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures was from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America.
-1000: World population begins to rise steadily, reaching some 50 million.
-1000: The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures was from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America.
-1000: Attempts have been made to assign a historical date to the Kurukshetra War. Scholarly research suggests ca. 1000 BCE, while popular tradition holds that the war marks the transition to Kali Yuga and thus dates it to 3102 BCE.
[Singh, Upinder (2009), History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Longman, ISBN 978-8131716779]
-1000 (Dec 31):[Space] Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were identified by ancient Babylonian astronomers in the 2nd millennium BC. They were correctly identified as orbiting the Sun by Aristarchus of Samos (-310 to -230), and later in Nicolaus Copernicus' heliocentric system (De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, 1543)
-1000: The Chinese are believed to have been among the first to formalize the concept of odds and chance, with evidence dating back over 3,000 years. The concept of randomness has a long history, dating back to ancient times where it was intertwined with fate and fortune-telling. Early civilizations used methods like dice, coins, and games to determine outcomes or seek divine guidance. The formal study of randomness, including the calculation of odds and probability, emerged later with advancements in mathematics.
-1000: Peafowl, encompassing both peacocks (males) and peahens (females), are native to Asia, with the Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) originating from the Indian subcontinent, including India and Sri Lanka. The green peafowl (Pavo muticus) is native to Southeast Asia. The Congo peafowl (Afropavo congensis) is found in the Congo Basin in Africa. Indian Peafowl (Blue Peafowl) were brought to the Middle East and Mediterranean regions as early as 1000 BCE, becoming popular in ancient Greece and Rome.
-1000:[Business][GeoPolitics] Evidence suggests trade between East and West dates back even further, with some historians tracing it to 1000 BCE. Silk, jade, and other goods were exchanged along routes like the "Gansu corridor".
-1000:[Business][GeoPolitics] Early traders from Arabia, Africa, Persia, and southern India reached Kedah before arriving at Guangzhou. Kedah served as a western port on the Malay Peninsula. They traded glassware, camphor, cotton goods, brocades, ivory, sandalwood, perfume, and precious stones. These traders sailed to Kedah via the monsoon winds between June and November. They returned between December and May. Kedah provided accommodations, porters, small vessels, bamboo rafts, elephants, as well as tax collections for goods to be transported overland toward eastern ports of the Malay Peninsula such as Langkasuka and Kelantan. After the tenth century, ships from China began to trade at these eastern trading posts and ports. Kedah and Funan were famous ports throughout the 6th century, before shipping began to use the Strait of Malacca itself as a trade route. Kedah aka Queda, is a state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. Kedah was previously known as Kadaram (Tamil: கடாரம்; Kaṭāram) by the ancient and medieval Tamils, Kataha or Kalahbar (Arabic: قتح; qataḥa or Arabic: قلحبر; qalaḥbar) by the Arabs, and Syburi (Thai: ไทรบุรี; RTGS: Sai Buri) by the Siamese when it was under their influence.
-1000:[Geography] During the last ice age, a massive continental ice sheet, the Laurentide ice sheet, covered the area and carved deep depressions into the Earth's surface. As the climate warmed and the ice sheets retreated about 14,000 years ago, they left behind these large basins. The meltwater from the retreating glaciers began to fill these depressions, gradually forming the basic shape of the Great Lakes, including Lake Huron. Lake Huron, along with Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, is believed to have reached its current shape and size around 3,000 years ago. Lake Huron took its present form approximately 3,000 years ago after the melting of the Laurentide ice sheet, with the lake basins formed by the glaciers and filled with meltwater. This was a much later stage in its formation compared to the initial basins, which were exposed around 14,000 years ago as the ice receded.
-1000:[Tourism][TR] Many historians believe that this city's origins stretch back nearly 3,000 years. Looking at the hillside tableau, it's not hard to believe. And while the limestone buildings we see here in Mardin's Old Town don't date back to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, many of them are impressively old, built in the medieval era's Artuqid architectural style. Among the structures on this terraced slope are historic mosques and churches, and just out of view in the top right corner of our image is Mardin Castle, an enormous citadel that dominates the mountaintop. The views from these elevated streets are impressive—a sweeping quilt of cropland stretches across the Mesopotamian plain of southeastern Türkiye.
--Thousands years ago (TYO)--
10th century BC - started the first day of -1000 and ended the last day of -901.
-9xx: The historicity of the Kurukshetra War is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war to Iron Age India of the 10th century BCE. The setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age (Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE. A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for the Jaya, the foundation on which the Mahābhārata corpus was built, with a climactic battle, eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event. (Mahabharata)
-980: Ethipoia. Formation of the state of D'mt.-911:The Assyrian empire, a major Semitic kingdom in the Ancient Near East, had a long and impactful history, spanning from the late second millennium BCE to its fall in 612-609 BCE. Their reign saw periods of expansion, dominance, and eventual decline, leaving behind a legacy of military prowess, monumental architecture, and significant cultural influence.
9th century BC - started the first day of -900 and ended the last day of -801.
-872: Parshvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara [Jainism]
-868: The "Diamond Sutra", the oldest printed book in the world dates back to 868 and is considered an important Buddhist text. The "Diamond Sutra" is the work of Chinese printers.
-853: Listed among the booty captured by the army of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in the Battle of Qarqar (853 BCE) are 1000 camels of "Gîndibuʾ the Arbâya" or "[the man] Gindibu belonging to the Arabs" (ar-ba-a-a being an adjectival nisba of the noun ʿArab).
-850: Homer was an author, intellectual and philosopher in ancient Greece, who is credited with writing two of the greatest epics in the history of literature. Homer's epic poems Iliad and Odyssey were written during the era of the Trojan War, owing to their importance in Greek culture.
-800 to -1000 CE:[Anthro][Culture] Norse myths spread orally via poets (skalds) across Iceland, Greenland, and Britain.
-800 to -700:[Anthro][Culture] The Archaic Period. Homer writes the Iliad and Odyssey, and Hesiod writes Theogony, standardizing the family tree of the gods.
-800: Sulbasutras- the ancient indic manuals of geometrical constructions; Archaic period starts in Greece lasted till -480.
-800: Greek alphabets. It is believed that this happened sometime in the 8th century BCE. These very early letters were probably brought to the Greeks by the Phoenicians, another ancient people. The Greeks added a new twist by adding vowels and deciding how each letter should be pronounced. The result was the alphabet.
-800:[Culture][EU] The Celtic Iron Age in Britain lasted from 800 BC to AD 43. It began when ironworking spread from mainland Europe and ended with the Roman conquest. The people of this era spoke Common Brittonic languages and shared distinct cultural and artistic traits. Early Iron Age (800 BC – 600 BC)800 BC: Iron tools and weapons begin to replace bronze across Britain.700 BC: The first large hillforts appear, serving as early political and gathering centers.600 BC: Farming communities grow more permanent, shifting focus toward land division and livestock control.Middle Iron Age (600 BC – 100 BC)400 BC: Distinct regional tribal identities emerge. La Tène artistic styles influence metalwork.350 BC: Masterpieces of Celtic art, like the Battersea Shield, are crafted.200 BC: Hillforts expand into major communal, trading, and defensive hubs.Late Iron Age (100 BC – AD 43)100 BC: Wealthy southeastern tribes begin minting their own gold and silver coins, influenced by trade with Gaul and Rome.55 BC – 54 BC: Julius Caesar launches his brief expeditions to Britain, bringing the Britons into written Mediterranean history.AD 43: Emperor Claudius begins the full Roman invasion of Britain, ending the Celtic Iron Age and starting the Roman period.
-800:[Tourism][EU] When a site proves itself a good strategic spot, it typically stays that way: For centuries, this Northumberland seaside crag has been crowned by a series of castles and keeps. The first fort was likely built in the Iron Age by Celtic Britons (between -800 and 43), later to be destroyed by the Vikings in 933. In the 11th century, the Normans erected the core of the hulking castle you see now. Bamburgh Castle witnessed—and was sometimes battered by—the power struggles of history, until falling into disrepair in the 17th century. But the end to this stronghold's saga is a happy one, as Bamburgh Castle was fully restored by the Victorian era.
8th century BC started the first day of -800 and ended the last day of -701.
The 8th century BC was a period of great change for several historically significant civilizations. In Egypt, the 23rd and 24th dynasties lead to rule from Nubia in the 25th Dynasty.
[Technology][Military] In ancient China, the Zhou Dynasty Chinese text of the Shi Jing (Book of Odes) records that King Wen of Zhou was the first to create a pontoon bridge in the 11th century BC. However, the historian Joseph Needham has pointed out that in all likely scenarios, the temporary pontoon bridge was invented during the 9th or 8th century BC in China, as this part was perhaps a later addition to the book (considering how the book had been edited up until the Han Dynasty, 202 BC – 220 AD). Although earlier temporary pontoon bridges had been made in China, the first secure and permanent ones (and linked with iron chains) in China came first during the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC). The later Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese statesman Cao Cheng once wrote of early pontoon bridges in China (spelling of Chinese in Wade-Giles format):
period for Classical antiquity started. Classical antiquity, also known as the classical era, classical period, classical age, or simply classical history or antiquity, is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which both Greek and Roman societies flourished and wielded huge influence throughout much of Europe, North Africa, and West Asia.
Ancient Greece (-700 to -480)
-7xx: The Rise of Cities and Empires: The emergence of cities and empires, such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, represented a new level of social organization and political power. These civilizations developed sophisticated systems of governance, law, and infrastructure, leaving a lasting impact on art, philosophy, and political thought. (the most distinguished turning points in human history)
-7xx: Ancient Greek civilization, also commonly called Ancient Greece, was a large area, mostly along the northeast shore of the Mediterranean Sea, where people spoke the Greek language. The area was much larger than today's country of Greece. The Greek civilization thrived from the archaic period of the 8th to the 6th centuries BC to 146 BC. The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece at the Battle of Corinth.
In Norse mythology, the days of the week are named after celestial bodies and Norse deities. Sunday is named after the sun goddess, Sol, and Monday after the moon god, Mani. Tuesday is named after Tyr, the god of combat. Wednesday is named after Odin, the one-eyed king of the gods. Thursday is named after Thor, the god of thunder and strength. Friday is named after Frigg, the goddess of marriage and motherhood. Saturday is named after the Roman god Saturn.
-782:[EU][Armenia] The history of Yerevan dates back to the 8th century BC, with the founding of the fortress of Erebuni in 782 BC by King Argishti I of Urartu at the western extreme of the Ararat Plain.[30] Erebuni was "designed as a great administrative and religious centre, a fully royal capital." By the late ancient Armenian Kingdom, new capital cities were established and Yerevan declined in importance. The city was mostly depopulated by the Great Surgun of 1603–05, when the Safavid Empire forcibly deported hundreds of thousands of Armenians to Iran.
-770:The first sections of what would become the Great Wall were built during the Spring and Autumn (770–476 BCE) and Warring States periods (475–221 BCE). The construction of the Great Wall of China was a multi-generational, centuries-long process that spanned from the 3rd century BC to the 17th century AD, lasting over 2,000 years. It wasn't a single continuous project but rather a collection of walls built, abandoned, rebuilt, and extended by various Chinese dynasties.
-768: Etruscan civilization started in today's Italy. They are considered to written the oldest book in the world, Etruscan script of six pages made of beaten gold.
The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna, which was syncopated to Rasna or Raśna. As distinguished by its unique language, this civilization endured from the time of the earliest Etruscan inscriptions (c. 700 BC) until its assimilation into the Roman Republic in the late 4th century BC.
The Etruscans spoke a unique language, unrelated to those of their neighbours. Their culture was influenced by Greek traders, and by the Greek colonists of southern Italy. The Etruscan alphabet is Greek in its origins. They in turn passed on their alphabet to the Romans.
The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna, which was syncopated to Rasna or Raśna. As distinguished by its unique language, this civilization endured from the time of the earliest Etruscan inscriptions (c. 700 BC) until its assimilation into the Roman Republic in the late 4th century BC.
The Etruscans spoke a unique language, unrelated to those of their neighbours. Their culture was influenced by Greek traders, and by the Greek colonists of southern Italy. The Etruscan alphabet is Greek in its origins. They in turn passed on their alphabet to the Romans.
--------------------------------------------------- Roman Kingdom ---------------------------------------------------
-753: The Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC), also referred to as the Roman monarchy, or the regal period of ancient Rome, was the earliest period of Roman history, when the city and its territory were ruled by kings.
-753: The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the middle of the Roman Republic period. The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet. The writing later changed from an initial right-to-left or boustrophedon to a left-to-right script.
-753: Roman law was actively developed and used as a living legal system from the founding of Rome in 753 BC through the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE, and continued in the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire until 1453 CE.
-753:[crime] Roman Law - The concept originated formally in early legal systems like Rome, where repetundae referred to the illegal extortion of money or property by provincial governors or public officials.Common Law: Early English common law initially treated extortion narrowly, limiting it to corrupt official misconduct where individuals in power used their office to demand illegal fees.Expansion: Over centuries, legal definitions broadened past corrupt officials to include private individuals using threats, paving the way for modern statutory definitions like Extortion under western and international law.
-720:When was Israel first destroyed? The Kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians following a long siege of the capital Samaria around 720 BCE. The records of Sargon II of Assyria indicate that he captured Samaria and deported 27,290 inhabitants to Mesopotamia.
-700:[Education][India][Public] Taxila, the world's first university. no. of students: 10,500; subjects taught: >60
-700: early urbanisation at Ujjain, Avanti.
-700: The first-ever bra most likely dates back to ancient Greece, when women wrapped a band of wool or linen across their breasts, pinning or tying them in the back. Corsets didn't show up until around 1500 and quickly became mandatory for middle- and upper-class women in Western society.
7th century BC - started the first day of -700 and ended the last day of -601.
-600s:
-699:
-680:[History] Gyges (reigned c. 680–644 BC) was the founder of the Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings and the first known king of the Lydian kingdom to have attempted to transform it into a powerful empire. Gyges reigned 38 years according to Herodotus. (history of coins, chances and randomness)
-660: Japan founded.
-660 (Feb 11): The Imperial House of Japan.
-650:[History] True coinage began soon after 650 bc. The 6th-century Greek poet Xenophanes, quoted by the historian Herodotus, ascribed its invention to the Lydians, “the first to strike and use coins of gold and silver.” King Croesus of Lydia (reigned c.560–546 bc) (history of coins, chance and randomness)
-650: Ancient Lydia: Counterfeiting started as soon as the first electrum coins were invented. Early fraudsters mixed base metals with gold and silver or cast illegal copies.
-640: Pittacus of Mytilene (c. 640 BC – c. 568 BC) governed Mytilene (Lesbos). He tried to reduce the power of the nobility and was able to govern with the support of the demos, whom he favoured. He is 2nd of the Seven Sages of Greece.
-638: Solon of Athens (c. 638 BC – c. 558 BC) was a famous legislator and reformer from Athens, framing the laws that shaped the Athenian democracy. He is 4th of the Seven Sages of Greece.
-634:[crime] Ancient Era (c. 600 BCE – 44 BCE): State & Political Assassinations - Contract killing (murder-for-hire) has evolved from ancient state-sanctioned political assassinations and mercenary warfare into specialized, localized, and organized crime networks. Context: Early recorded targeted killings were mostly political or military rather than commercial contracts. Rulers and military commanders used individual operatives or loyalists to remove rivals. Examples: The biblical account of Judith beheading Holofernes (c. 634–562 BCE) and the political strategy outlined by Indian philosopher Chanakya regarding the Maurya Empire.
-626: Thales of Miletus was born?
-626:the Neo-Babylonian Empire (c. 626-539 BC) started and lasted for 87 years. The Babylonians had two major periods of rule: the Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1894-1595 BC) and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (c. 626-539 BC). The Old Babylonian period is most known for the reign of King Hammurabi, who established a vast empire and developed the Code of Hammurabi. The Neo-Babylonian period, also known as the Chaldean Empire, saw Babylon regain its prominence and cultural influence under the Chaldean dynasty.
-624: Thales, born at Miletus, Turkey. His occupation was of an engineer. He was also the first natural philosopher in the Milesian School. He was influenced by the subjects of Babylonian astronomy, Ancient Egyptian mathematics and Ancient Egyptian religion. He influenced Pythagoras, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Xenophanes
-623: Thales of Miletus was born?
-623: Thales of Miletus was born?
-623:[Physics] The origins of theoretical physics can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy, specifically the early thinkers like Thales and Aristotle, who first attempted to explain the universe through reason rather than supernatural means, leading to the development of natural philosophy. The term "physics" itself comes from the Greek word "physikos" for natural. Theoretical physics as a distinct field, however, truly began to form during the Scientific Revolution with figures like Isaac Newton, who used mathematical frameworks to understand natural phenomena, and was formalized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in Germany.
6th century BC - started on the first day of 600 BC
China, Japan, Greece, India, Israel - age of philosophical revolutions.
The five books making up the Torah are Be-reshit, Shemot, Va-yikra, Be-midbar and Devarim, which in the English Bible correspond to Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.
Inscriptions dating to the 6th century BCE in Yemen include the term 'Arab'
-600: Ujjain emerged as the political, commercial and cultural capital of Mala plateau.
-600: [Book][History] History of India Earliest Time To 600 B.C. by Dr. AK Chaturvedi
-600: [Culture][Mythology] the work of very old geoglyphs, are the famous Nazca lines in Peru, drawings that can only be seen from the sky, at a considerable height. These are supposed messages to the gods made by the Nazca (pre-Columbian) culture, made between 200 and 600 BC.
-600:[Physics][Space] Ancient people were aware of lightning and static electricity, although they had no idea of the mechanisms behind these phenomena. The Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus discovered around 600 B.C.E. that amber could acquire an electric charge when it was rubbed with cloth, which allowed it to pick up light objects such as pieces of straw. Thales also experimented with the ability of magnetic rocks to attract one other, and hypothesized that this phenomena might be connected to the attractive power of amber, foreshadowing the deep connections between electricity and magnetism that would be discovered over 2,000 years later. Despite all this investigation, ancient civilizations had no understanding of the mathematical basis of electromagnetism, and often analyzed its impacts through the lens of religion rather than science (lightning, for instance, was considered to be a creation of the gods in many cultures).
-600:[Geography] Cape of Good Hope - Around 600 BC, Necho II reputedly commissioned an expedition of Phoenicians, who it is said in three years sailed from the Red Sea around Africa back to the mouth of the Nile; and would thereby be the first completion of the Cape Route. Herodotus' account was handed down to him by oral tradition,but is seen as potentially credible because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians "as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right"—to northward of them (The Histories 4.42). Pliny reported that Hanno had circumnavigated Africa, which may have been a conflation with Necho's voyage, while Strabo, Polybius, and Ptolemy doubted the description; at the time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to Asia).
-600:[Medicine][Who][Book] In Hindu mythology and tradition, the timeline of Lord Dhanvantari spans cosmic creation, terrestrial incarnations as a human king, and medieval pharmacopeia developments. Samudra Manthan: Emerged from the Ocean of Milk during the celestial churning by the devas and asuras, holding the sacred pot of Amrita (nectar of immortality) and defining the genesis of Ayurveda. King Divodasa of Kashi (~600 BCE): Appeared as the historical/mythological King Divodasa of Varanasi (Kashi), who taught surgical and medical sciences to a group of human sages. Discipleship of Sushruta: Passed his medical and surgical knowledge to his primary disciple Sushruta, enabling the compilation of the foundational Sushruta Samhita.
-600:[Medicine] Sushruta lived and compiled his foundational surgical teachings around 600 BCE in Kashi (Varanasi), India. His historical timeline spans from ancient composition to later historical revisions and global translations. Sushruta lived, studied medicine under King Divodasa Dhanvantari in Kashi, and practiced ancient Indian medicine.
-600:[India] Second Urbanization (c. 600 BCE onwards): Resurged in the Gangetic plains aided by iron tools, agricultural surplus, and coin-based trade. Led to territorial states (Mahajanapadas) and urban hubs like Pataliputra, Varanasi, and Ujjain.
-500s:[Technology] Acoustics, the science of sound, starts as far back as Pythagoras in the 6th century BC, who wrote on the mathematical properties of stringed instruments.
-500s: Warli's mural paintings are similar to those done between 500 and 10 000 BC in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka , in Madhya Pradesh.
-500s: Mathura became the capital of the Surasena mahajanapada.The city was later ruled by the Maurya empire (4th to 2nd centuries BCE) and the Shunga dynasty (2nd century BCE). People in Mathura and nearby areas speak Braj. Braj Bhasha is a Western Hindi language closely related to Hindustani. In fact, it is usually considered to be a dialect of Western Hindi, and along with Awadhi (a variety of Eastern Hindi) was one of the two predominant literary languages of North-Central India before the switch to Hindustani (Khariboli) in the 19th century. Its purest forms are spoken in the cities of Mathura, Agra, Etah, and Aligarh.
-599: Thales of Miletus was the one who began early Greek Geometry. The name Thales, of Greek origin, generally means "to flourish" or "to bloom", signifying growth and prosperity, according to baby name resources. It is often associated with the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus, who was known for his contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. The name can also be interpreted as "one who thrives".
-585:Thales of Miletus, Greek philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer, born in Miletus. He held that water was the origin of all things and he predicted the solar eclipse of May 28, 585 BC.
-575: Archaic period of Etruscan art, started roughly in 575 BC and lasted till -480.
-569: Pythagoras born at Samos, Ionia. Founder of Pythagoreanism.
-569: Pythagoras born at Samos, Ionia. Founder of Pythagoreanism.
-559:Cyrus the Great's military prowess and strategic alliances led to the empire's rapid expansion. His successors, like Cambyses II and Darius I, continued this expansion, incorporating Egypt and other territories into the empire. The Persian Empire started for 228 years, also known as the Achaemenid Empire, was a major empire in ancient history, lasting from approximately 559 BCE to 331 BCE. It was founded by Cyrus the Great, who united the Persian tribes and conquered neighboring kingdoms, including Media, Lydia, and Babylon. At its height, the empire encompassed a vast territory, stretching from modern-day Iran, Egypt, and Türkiye to parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan.
-558: Bimbisāra born (in Buddhist tradition) or Shrenika and Seniya in the Jain histories (c. 558 – c. 491 BCE or during the late 5th century BCE) was a King of Magadha (r. 543 – 492 BCE or c. 400 BC) and belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He was succeeded on the throne by his son Ajatashatru in -492.
-550: Publius Horatius Cocles was an officer in the army of the early Roman Republic who famously defended the Pons Sublicius from the invading army of Etruscan King Lars Porsena of Clusium in the late 6th century BC, during the war between Rome and Clusium. The phrase "The Captain of the Gate" refers to Horatius Cocles, a Roman hero from Thomas Babington Macaulay's poem "Horatius". Winston Churchill famously admired and quoted this poem. The poem depicts Horatius defending a bridge against an Etruscan army, showcasing bravery and sacrifice for his country. Churchill's recitation of the poem, particularly the lines about facing fearful odds, is highlighted in films like "Darkest Hour". Roman hero traditionally of the late 6th century bc but perhaps legendary, who first with two companions and finally alone defended the Sublician bridge.
-546:[History] conquest of transoxiana - Prior to Alexander, the region was under Achaemenid Persian control, with Cyrus the Great having conquered areas of it around 546-540 BC. The primary cultural and historical cities are Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva.
-538: Elea founded on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Velia was the Roman name of an ancient city of Magna Graecia on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. It was founded by Greeks from Phocaea as Hyele ( Ancient Greek: Ὑέλη) around 538–535 BC. The name later changed to Ele and then Elea ( / ˈɛliə /; Ancient Greek: Ἐλέα) before it became known by its current Latin and Italian name during the Roman era. (present day location, Velia, Province of Salerno, Campania, Italy)
-535: Heraclitus of Ephesus was born in Ephesus, Turkey. He was an Ancient Greek, pre-Socratic, Ionian philosopher and a native of the city of Ephesus, which was then part of the Persian Empire. His thoughts fed into the writings of Aristotle and Plato.
-527: Vardhamāna (popular as Mahavira), the 23rd tirthankara [Jainism] died. Mahavira added the principle of chastity to the four Jain principles already given by Parshva (no violence, no lying, no stealing, no possessions). According to tradition Mahavira is said to have established a community of 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns before he died.
-518: Darius I, the Persian emperor, conquered the area around the river Sindhu and called it the river Indus/Hindu, that's how the word India came.
-518: Darius I, the Persian emperor, conquered the area around the river Sindhu and called it the river Indus/Hindu, that's how the word India came.
-515: Parmenides of Elea was born. He was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher from Elea in Magna Graecia. He is thought to have been in his prime (or "floruit") around 475 BC (-475). The single known work by Parmenides is a poem whose original title is unknown but which is often referred to as On Nature. Only fragments of it survive, but its importance lies in the fact that it contains the first sustained argument in the history of Western philosophy. His Notable students include Zeno of Elea and Socrates.
--------------------------------------------------- Roman Republic ---------------------------------------------------
-509: Roman Republic overthrew Roman Kingdom (Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last of Rome’s seven kings). This republic dated to 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. [Kingdom -> Republic -> Empire]. The top magistrates were the two consuls, who had an extensive range of executive, legislative, judicial, military, and religious powers. Even though a small number of powerful families (called gentes) monopolised the main magistracies, the Roman Republic is generally considered one of the earliest examples of representative democracy.
-509: Lucius Junius Brutus (fl. 6th century BC) is the semi-legendary founder of the Roman Republic, and traditionally one of its first consuls in 509 BC. He was reputedly responsible for the expulsion of his uncle the Roman king Tarquinius Superbus after the suicide of Lucretia, which led to the overthrow of the Roman monarchy. He was involved in the abdication of fellow consul Tarquinius Collatinus, and executed two of his sons for plotting the restoration of the Tarquins.
Lucius Tarquinius Ar. f. Ar. n. Collatinus was one of the first two consuls of the Roman Republic in 509 BC, together with Lucius Junius Brutus. The two men had led the revolution which overthrew the Roman monarchy. He was forced to resign his office and go into exile as a result of the hatred he had helped engender in the people against the former ruling house.
Lucius Tarquinius Ar. f. Ar. n. Collatinus was one of the first two consuls of the Roman Republic in 509 BC, together with Lucius Junius Brutus. The two men had led the revolution which overthrew the Roman monarchy. He was forced to resign his office and go into exile as a result of the hatred he had helped engender in the people against the former ruling house.
Ajita Kesakambali was an ancient Indian philosopher in the 6th century BC. He is considered to be the first known proponent of Indian materialism, and forerunner to the Charvaka school. He was probably a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira.
Mahavira's economics add four elements to those of modern economic thought- means of convenience, physical desire (attachment or stupor), enjoyment of luxury, fame (or ego). Mahavira said that while earning wealth, human values should not be sacrificed.
6th century BC - ended on the last day of 501 BC.
5th century BC - started on the first day of 500 BC.
-500 to 500:[Anthro][Culture] Epic and Puranic Age. Great epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata are written down. The focus shifts to the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva).
-500 to -323:[Anthro][Culture] Classical Greece. Great temples like the Parthenon are built; mythology is popularized worldwide through theatrical plays.
-500:[History] The history of "nothing" is not about a historical event, but rather a philosophical concept explored since ancient times. Philosophers like Leucippus and Democritus (around 500 BCE) first proposed atomic theory, suggesting that space between atoms constituted nothingness. Aristotle, in contrast, argued that "nothing" couldn't exist, as nature would fill any void. Later, Rene Descartes also explored the concept of nothing in the context of space and vacuum. The concept of nothingness is also relevant in philosophy and religious thought, with some traditions exploring absolute nothingness beyond the realm of things.
-500:[Medicine] Ayurvedic Tradition of Bacopa monnieri (brahmi): First documented in ancient Ayurvedic texts (dating back to around the 6th century AD or earlier) under the Sanskrit name Brahmi, named after the creator god Brahma.Traditional Use: Utilized historically as a Rasayana tonic meant to sharpen intellect, expand consciousness, and support memory function.
-500: Buddha visited the ancient city of Benares (today's Varanasi)
-500: On Nature (Greek: Περὶ Φύσεως; Peri Physeos) is a philosophical treatise written by Heraclitus. According to Diogenes Laërtius, it was divided into three discourses; one on the universe, another on politics (and ethics), and one on theology. Heraclitus also concluded "Change is the only constant in life".
-500:Athens implemented a system around 500 BC, requiring citizens to dispose of waste outside the city walls, marking a significant step towards organized waste management. (landfills)
-500 (Jan 1): The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC
-500:[APAC] Vanuatu's ancient history - Cultural Evolution (c. 500 BCE onwards): A second, distinct wave of Melanesian populations likely arrived, diversifying the population and establishing complex societies.
-500:[India][FnB] The first ever primitive sugar production facilities originated in ancient India around 500 BCE, where people first learned to crush sugarcane and boil the juice into solid crystals called sharkara. For the first modern industrial beet sugar factory, the facility was built in Cunern, Silesia (modern-day Poland/Germany) in 1801.
-500:[crime] c. 500–200 BCE: In Ancient Rome and Greece, citizens bet heavily on chariot races and gladiatorial bouts. When Rome later enacted a 1,000-year gambling ban, citizens invented the first gambling chips to circumvent the laws.
5th century BC - ended on the last day of 401 BC.
4th century BC - started on the first day of 400 BC.
4th century BC - ended on the last day of 301 BC.
3rd century BC - started on the first day of 300 BC.
3rd century BC - ended on the last day of 201 BC.
2nd century BC - started on the first day of 200 BC.
2nd century BC - ended on the last day of 101 BC.
1st century BC - started on the first day of 100 BC.
1st century BC - ended on the last day of 1 BC.
-4xx:[India][History] The bulk of the Mahābhārata was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.
-4xx:[Culture] Map of the Qedarite Kingdom in the 5th century B.C
-4xx:[Education][India][Public] The University of Nalanda, for example, which was a seat of Buddhist learning in India, was founded.-4xx: Abacus in India.
-4xx: Rhapso. In Greek mythology, Rhapso (Ancient Greek: Ῥαψώ) was a nymph or a minor goddess worshipped at Athens. She is known solely from an inscription of the 4th century BCE, found at Phaleron. Her name apparently derives from the Greek verb ῥάπτω "to sew" or "to stitch".
-428:[tech] Many people consider Archimedes to have invented the screw thread around 250BC. However, Archytas of Tarentum (428BC-350BC) first applied the screw principle in presses to extract oil from olives. Examples of these presses were found in the ruins of Pompeii.
-495: Zeno of Elea (from -495 to -430) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of Magna Graecia and a member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides. Aristotle called him the inventor of the dialectic. He is best known for his paradoxes, which Bertrand Russell described as "immeasurably subtle and profound". [Jon Elia]
-492: Ajatashatru started to reign, Ajatashattu or Ajatasatru (Sanskrit: Ajātaśatru, Pāli: Ajātasattu; 492 to 460 BCE or early 5th century BCE) was one of the most important kings of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha in East India. He was the son of King Bimbisara and was a contemporary of both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. He forcefully took over the kingdom of Magadha from his father and imprisoned him. He fought a war against Vajji, ruled by the Lichchhavis, and conquered the republic of Vaishali (ancient city). The city of Pataliputra was formed by fortification of a village by Ajatashatru.
-484: The name "India" is originally derived from the name of the river Sindhu (Indus River) and has been in use in Greek since Herodotus (from -484 to -425). The term appeared in Old English as early the 9th century and reemerged in Modern English in the 17th century.
-484: Herodotus born. In the opening sentences of Herodotus's history, written in the 5th century BC, he refers to the Phoenicians having come originally from the Erythraean Sea.
-480: Arab soldier of the Achaemenid army, c. 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief.
-480: The Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) Key Context: A pivotal battle during the Greco-Persian Wars between the Greek city-states, led by Sparta, and the Persian Empire, led by King Xerxes I
Significance: The Battle of Thermopylae is one of history’s most iconic last stands, where King Leonidas of Sparta and 300 Spartan soldiers, alongside a small coalition of other Greeks, defended a narrow mountain pass against a vastly larger Persian force. Although the Greeks ultimately lost the battle, their resistance delayed the Persians and inspired Greek unity.
Why It’s Famous: The Spartans’ heroic stand became a symbol of courage, sacrifice, and patriotism.
The battle is immortalized in Western culture through literature, film, and art (e.g., the movie 300).
Key Events: Strategic Location: The Greeks chose the narrow pass at Thermopylae to neutralize the Persians’ numerical advantage. Betrayal: A Greek traitor, Ephialtes, revealed a secret path to the Persians, allowing them to outflank the defenders. The Final Stand: Leonidas and his soldiers fought to the death, allowing other Greek forces to retreat and regroup.
Major Consequences:Although a tactical defeat, the battle gave time for the Greeks to prepare for future victories, such as the Battle of Salamis and Battle of Plataea.
The Greek victory in the broader war preserved their independence and cultural development, influencing Western civilization.
Long-Term Impact: Thermopylae’s legacy is central to ideas of military strategy and the concept of fighting against overwhelming odds.
It fostered Greek unity, ultimately contributing to the rise of Athens and the Golden Age of Greece.
-476:The Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) Fall of the Western Roman Empire Key Context: Internal decay, external invasions, and political instability caused the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West Significance: The fall of the Western Roman Empire is a symbolic event marking the end of antiquity and the beginning of the European Middle Ages. The empire had already been weakened by economic decline, military losses, and administrative corruption. The final blow came when Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 CE. Why It’s Famous: The Roman Empire was one of the most powerful and influential civilizations in history, shaping politics, culture, language, and law. Its fall represented a major transition, as Europe entered a period of fragmentation and feudalism. Major Consequences: End of Centralized Authority: Western Europe splintered into smaller kingdoms and tribes, including the Franks, Visigoths, and Ostrogoths. Rise of the Byzantine Empire: While the Western Roman Empire fell, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) thrived and preserved much of Roman culture. Spread of Christianity: The Catholic Church became a unifying force, preserving Roman traditions and literacy. Long-Term Impact: The Roman legal system, infrastructure (e.g., roads, aqueducts), and language (Latin) continued to influence later European civilizations. The fall set the stage for the rise of the Holy Roman Empire, the Renaissance, and modern Western political systems.
-475:[India] Dwarka is an ancient city with a history intertwined with mythology and archaeological findings. While the city is believed to have been established by Lord Krishna, the exact year of its initial construction is not definitively known. Archaeological evidence suggests indicates the existence of a city-state around 1500 BC, and some theories propose the city was submerged around 3138 BC. The Dwarkadhish Temple, a significant landmark, was rebuilt in the 15th-16th century, though it was originally built over 2,500 years ago (2025).
-469: Socrates born.
-460: Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC) described several kinds of cancer, referring to them with the Greek word καρκίνος karkinos (crab or crayfish). This name comes from the appearance of the cut surface of a solid malignant tumor, with "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives its name".
-460:[Women] Ajatashatru had 500 wives but the principal consort was Princess Vajira. According to Dīgha nikāya, Ajatashatru was born to King Bimbisara and Queen Kosala Devi, who was the daughter of "Maha-Kosala", (the king of Kosala) and sister of "Pasenadi" who later succeeded to the throne. Ajatasattu (Pāli: Ajātasattu) or Ajatashatru (Sanskrit: Ajātaśatru) in the Buddhist tradition, or Kunika (Kūṇika) and Kuniya (Kūṇiya) in the Jain tradition (reigned c. 492 to 460 BCE, or c. 405 to 373 BCE), was one of the most important kings of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha in East India. He was the son of King Bimbisara and was a contemporary of both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. He forcefully took over the kingdom of Magadha from his father and imprisoned him. He fought a war against the Vajjika League, led by the Licchavis, and conquered the republic of Vaishali. The city of Pataliputra was formed by fortification of a village by Ajatashatru.
-443:[Travel][India][RJ] Nagari is a village situated 18 Km North of Chittorgarh, on the banks of river Berach. In the ancient era, it was known as Majhimika or Madhyamika .According to the inscription found in Barli, near Ajmer; in 443 BC, this town was named as Majhimika.
------------------------------------------------- Sparts vs Athens started ------------------------------------------------
-431: The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) was an ancient Greek war fought between Athens (Athenian Alliance) and Sparta and their respective allies for the hegemony of the Greek world. Our sources for the Peloponnesian War (mainly Thucydides) come from the losing Athenian point of view.
(History is written often by victors, sometimes by losers and always by survivors. The lesson is: stay alive. It'd be better to be an alive loser (like Aeneus) than to be a dead victor (like Achilles or Agamemnon).)
(History is written often by victors, sometimes by losers and always by survivors. The lesson is: stay alive. It'd be better to be an alive loser (like Aeneus) than to be a dead victor (like Achilles or Agamemnon).)
The name "Spartan" primarily refers to someone from the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta, known for its rigorous military training and disciplined lifestyle. In modern usage, it can also describe something or someone exhibiting a minimalist, austere, or disciplined nature.
-431: Sparta declared war on Athens. This conflict was called the Peloponnesian War. lasted for over 27 years. Cities and crops were destroyed, and thousands of Greeks died. All of the Greek city-states suffered losses of economic and military power.
-430:[Philosophy][Physics] Thought experiments originate from ancient Greek philosophy, predating a formal term and evident in Zeno's paradoxes around 430 B.C. However, the term "Gedankenexperiment" (thought experiment) was coined by Hans Christian Ørsted in the early 19th century, with Ernst Mach later solidifying its scientific usage, and the concept was popularized in English in the late 19th century, gaining significant traction with Albert Einstein's work.
-430:Xenophon was a Greek historian, soldier, and philosopher who lived from approximately 430 to 354 BC. He is best known for his historical and biographical writings, particularly his accounts of the Ten Thousand's retreat and his works on Socrates. The name Xenophon is of Greek origin, combining "xeno" (foreign/strange) and "phon" (voice), meaning "foreign voice" or "strange voice".
-430: Antiphon of ancient Greece used "the most costly outlay is time." Discourse upon Usury (1572) used "They saye tyme is precious." (on Time is Money)
-429: Plato born.
-427: Plato (-427 to -347, 80YO) was born into a wealthy family and well-connected family in Athens in 427 BCE.
-423:[Book] The Clouds (Ancient Greek: Νεφέλαι Nephelai) is a Greek comedy play written by the playwright Aristophanes. A lampooning of intellectual fashions in classical Athens, it was originally produced at the City Dionysia in 423 BC and was not as well received as the author had hoped, coming last of the three plays competing at the festival that year. It was revised between 420 and 417 BC and was thereafter circulated in manuscript form.
-413: Shishunaga (IAST: Śiśunāga, or Shusunaga) (c. 413 – 395 BCE) was the founder of the Shishunaga dynasty of the Magadha Empire in the present day northern India. Initially, he was an amatya (official) of the Magadha empire under the Haryanka dynasty. He was placed on the throne by the people who revolted against the Haryanka dynasty rule.
-409: Socrates (aged 60) met Plato (aged 20). This interaction led to the birth of Philosophy by KT'ing the Pluto. Philosohy began with Plato - Kant - Nietzsche - Buddha - Confucius - Averroes.
-405: The first recorded use of a heliograph was in 405 BC, when the Ancient Greeks used polished shields to signal in battle. (Greek: helios, meaning “sun”, and graphein, meaning “write”) is a wireless solar telegraph that signals using Morse code flashes of sunlight reflected by a mirror.
------------------------------------------------- Sparts vs Athens halted -------------------------------------------------
-401:[Book] Anabasis is the most famous work of the Ancient Greek professional soldier and writer Xenophon. It narrates the expedition of a large army of Greek mercenaries hired by Cyrus the Younger to help him seize the throne of Persia from his brother, Artaxerxes II, in 401 BC.
-400:[Space] At the time of Plato (around 400 BC), the star Kochab was close to being the North Star.
-400:[Research][Space] The first point, which deals with the origin of life on Earth, is known as panspermia ("seeds everywhere"). Its earliest recorded advocate was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, who influenced Socrates. However, Aristotle's theory of spontaneous generation came to be preferred by science for more than two thousand years. Cosmic Panspermia theory, initially proposed by the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras and later popularized by scientists such as Svante Arrhenius and Fred Hoyle, suggests that life’s building blocks, or spores, have a cosmic origin and can be distributed through space.
-400: Siddhārtha Gautama (popular as Gautam Buddha) died at the age of 80.
-400:[Book] According to tradition, the Dhammapada's verses were spoken by the Buddha on various occasions.[7] "By distilling the complex models, theories, rhetorical style and sheer volume of the Buddha's teachings into concise, crystalline verses, the Dhammapada makes the Buddhist way of life available to anyone...In fact, it is possible that the very source of the Dhammapada in the third century B.C.E. is traceable to the need of the early Buddhist communities in India to laicize the ascetic impetus of the Buddha's original words.
-400:[Book] Plato's Phaedo. The Phaedo was first translated into Latin from Greek by Henry Aristippus in 1160.
-400:[Book] Plato's Phaedo. The Phaedo was first translated into Latin from Greek by Henry Aristippus in 1160.
-400:[Space] By this time, the Greek philosophers Philolaus and Hicetas speculated separately that the Earth was a sphere revolving daily around some mystical "central fire" that regulated the universe. Anaxagoras proposed that the Sun is a star around 450 BCE. In the 3rd century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos extended this idea by proposing that the Earth and other planets moved around a definite central object, which he believed to be the Sun though this was not widely accepted until the 17th century and not proven until the 19th.
-400:[Maths] The Greek philosophers were the earliest Western thinkers to address chance and randomness. Around 400 BC, Democritus presented a view of the world as governed by the unambiguous laws of order and considered randomness as a subjective concept that only originated from the inability of humans to understand the nature of events. He used the example of two men who would send their servants to bring water at the same time to cause them to meet. The servants, unaware of the plan, would view the meeting as random.
-400:[crime] Ancient Greece & Rome: Criminals practiced "coin clipping"—shaving tiny bits of metal from coin edges. In response, authorities introduced anti-counterfeiting measures like serrated edges (serratus) and edge inscriptions.
-399: Socrates poisoned. Socrates has been convicted of corrupting the youth of Athens and introducing strange gods, and has been sentenced to die by drinking poison hemlock. Socrates uses his death as a final lesson for his pupils rather than fleeing when the opportunity arises, and faces it calmly.
-399:[Book] In Plato’s The Trial and Death of Socrates, written in approximately 399 B.C.E., his beloved teacher and mentor, Socrates, fights for his innocence against alleged charges, all of which pertaining to atheism, in the Court of King Archon. The Apology of Socrates (Latin: Apologia Socratis), written by Plato, is a Socratic dialogue of the speech of legal self-defence which Socrates spoke at his trial for impiety and corruption in 399 BC.
-399:"Separation of church and state" The entanglement of religion with the state has a long history dating back at least to the prosecution and conviction to death of Socrates for impiety in ancient Athens.
-398:[Philosophy][Military][Pakistan] Kalanos was born in Taxila, also spelled Calanus, was a Gandharan gymnosophist, and philosopher from Taxila who accompanied Alexander the Great to Persis and later self-immolated, after falling ill, entered himself into a pyre, in front of Alexander and his army. Alexander was attracted by the criticism on Greek Philosophy by Kalanos and that’s how he persuaded Kalanos to accompany him to Persis and stay there as a yogi and his guru. He died 73YO in -323 at Susa, an ancient city in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km east of the Tigris, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers in Iran.
-395:[Book] Plato's Euthyphro.
-385:[Book] Plato's Symposium.
-384: Aristotle born.
-387: The first academy of the world founded by Plato in a park and olive-grove situated suburb northwest of Athens called 'Academia' after a mythical attic hero Akademos.
-375:[Book] Plato's The Republic.
-375:The correct answer is Kautilya. Kautilya or Chanakya (375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist and royal advisor.
-371: Sparta's defeat by Thebes in the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC ended Sparta's prominent role in Greece.
-371: Tyrtamus was born on the island of Lesbos in the town of Eresos around 371 BCE - father of botany.
-371 (or later):[Book] Xenophon's Memorabilia
-367: Plato (aged 62) met Aristotle (aged 17).
-367:[Egypt] Ptolemy I Soter was an Ancient Macedonian general, historian and companion of Alexander the Great of the Kingdom of Macedon in northern Greece who became ruler of Egypt, part of Alexander's former empire. Ptolemy was pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt from 305/304 BC to his death in -282 (or 282BC).
The name Ptolemy, of Greek origin, means "warlike". It is derived from the Greek word "ptolemos" meaning "war". The name is known for its association with the Ptolemaic dynasty in ancient Egypt, where several rulers bore the name.
-359: To the north of the Greek city-states, the 23 years old, strong and fearless, King Philip II of Macedon came to power in 359 B.C. He had plans to build an empire that included the lands of Greece and of Persia.The name Philip, of Greek origin, means "lover of horses". It is derived from the Greek words "philos" (friend, lover) and "hippos" (horse). The name has a long history and has been borne by royalty, including several kings of Macedon.
-356 (Jul 21):Alexander the Great of Macedon was born.
-355:[Book] On Horsemanship, one of the two treatises on horsemanship by the Athenian historian and soldier Xenophon (c. 430–354 BC).
-350: De Anima published by Aristotle (384-322 BC). In this work he first numbered the senses. Even if someone had numbered them prior to that, it's certain that the Big Five have been known for thousands of years, are known to all of us, and are what most of us mean when we talk of The Senses.
-350: Euclid of Alexandria published treatise on mathematics "The Elements" and expounded many of the postulates and axioms that are the foundations of the Euclidian geometry.
-350: [History] Megasthenes was born. (/mɪˈɡæsθɪniːz/ mi-GAS-thi-neez; Ancient Greek: Μεγασθένης, c. 350 BCE– c. 290 BCE) was an ancient Greek historian, diplomat and Indian ethnographer and explorer in the Hellenistic period. He described India in his book Indica, which is now lost, but has been partially reconstructed from literary fragments found in later authors that quoted his work. Megasthenes was the first person from the Western world to leave a written description of India.
-345: Mahapadma Nanda, who has been described in the Puranas as "the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas", founded the Nanda Dynasty, capitaled at Patliputra.-343: Aristotle (aged 40) met Alexander III of Macedon (aged 13). In 343 or 342, king Philip II invited Aristotle to his court, where he was employed as a tutor to Philip's son Alexander, 13 years old at the time. Plutarch is the source dwelling on this tutorship the longest, in the section of Parallel Lives, which gives a glorified biography of Alexander. Alexander the Great was tutored by the famed Greek philosopher, Aristotle. Philip II invited Aristotle to teach in the royal academy of Macedon. Aristotle taught Alexander and the group that compromised Cassander, Hephaestion, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy.
-334:Alexander the Great’s Conquests (334–323 BCE) Alexander the Great Founding Alexandria Key Context: Alexander, the son of King Philip II of Macedon, inherited a powerful army and kingdom at just 20 years old Significance: Alexander the Great’s conquests were extraordinary for their speed and scope, creating one of the largest empires in history by the time of his death at age 32. He defeated the Persian Empire, extended his rule into Egypt, and marched as far east as India. Key Events: Battle of Issus (333 BCE): A decisive victory against Persian King Darius III. Founding of Alexandria: Alexander established multiple cities named after him, with Alexandria in Egypt becoming a major center of learning and culture. Indian Campaign: His advance into India culminated in the Battle of the Hydaspes River (326 BCE). Why It’s Famous: His empire spread Greek culture (Hellenism) across vast regions, influencing art, architecture, language, and governance for centuries. The cities he founded became key cultural and trading centers. His military tactics and leadership are still studied by military strategists today. Major Consequences: The blending of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian cultures created a vibrant Hellenistic Civilization. After his death, his empire was divided among his generals, leading to the formation of key successor states, including the Seleucid Empire, Ptolemaic Egypt, and Macedon. Long-Term Impact: Alexander’s influence persisted long after his empire collapsed. His conquests helped shape the development of the Roman Empire, which absorbed many elements of Hellenistic culture.
-332:The name Alexander means "defender of mankind" or "protector of men". It originates from the Greek name Alexandros, which is a combination of the words "alexein" (to ward off, defend) and "aner" (man). It is a name that has been associated with strength, courage, and leadership throughout history.
-332: Alexander founded Alexandria, Egypt, the most famous of the Hellenistic cities. The city was an important center of learning until the second century A.D. A library there contained major collections of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, Hebrew, and other texts. Scholars from the Mediterranean area and from Asia came to Alexandria to study. Also located in Alexandria was the Temple of the Muses. Muses are goddesses who rule the arts and sciences. Many examples of the arts and sciences were stored there. Today we call such a location a museum. Alexandria also had an enormous lighthouse whose light could be seen 50 kms. away. [Ancient Egypt timeline ends, start of Greek rule]
-332:Alexander the Great had many skilled generals who played crucial roles in his military campaigns. Some of the most prominent included Parmenion, Hephaestion, Perdiccas, Ptolemy, and Seleucus I Nicator. These generals helped him conquer vast territories and establish his empire.
Here's a little more about some of Alexander's key generals:
Parmenion: A veteran general who served under both Philip II and Alexander, Parmenion was a highly respected strategist and second-in-command. He was known for his experience and tactical expertise, playing a key role in many of Alexander's early victories.
Parmenio was the oldest and likely most experienced general serving under Alexander the Great. He was a prominent Macedonian general who had served with distinction under both Philip II and Alexander. Parmenio was known for his strategic acumen and was a key figure in Alexander's early campaigns.
Hephaestion: Alexander's close friend and confidant, Hephaestion, also served as a general in the Macedonian army. He was known for his loyalty and influence over Alexander, and he commanded the Companion cavalry. Alexander the Great's youngest general was likely Hephaestion. While not commanding troops from the very beginning of Alexander's campaigns, Hephaestion was a close childhood friend and confidant, and rose to prominence as a high-ranking officer. He was educated alongside Alexander and shared similar military experiences from a young age.
Perdiccas: A prominent general and officer of the Companion cavalry, Perdiccas became a key figure after Alexander's death, vying for control of the empire.
Ptolemy: Another general who served with distinction, Ptolemy later became the ruler of Egypt and founded the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Seleucus I Nicator: Initially a chiliarch under Perdiccas, Seleucus later became one of the Diadochi (successors) and established the Seleucid Empire.
Cleitus the Black: An officer who saved Alexander's life at the Battle of Granicus and later served with distinction, though he was tragically killed by Alexander in a drunken quarrel.
-331: Alexander got the control over the Persian Empire through Egypt.-330:The 66 books of the Bible were written over 1,500 years by more than 40 authors and present a cohesive picture of God’s epic rescue plan for humanity. The last book of the first part, known as the Old Testament, was finished about 330 years before the birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity. The second part of the Bible – the New Testament – focuses of Jesus’ life and the early Christian Church. It was finished around 90 AD. The structure of the Bible that we have today was finalised around 400 AD although it was more than a thousand years before it was available to ordinary men and women in English.
-329:[Geography] Transoxiana (meaning "land beyond the Oxus") is a historical Central Asian region located between the Amu Darya (Oxus) and Syr Darya (Jaxartes) rivers, primarily covering modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan. It was a major center of civilization, culture, and trade along the Silk Road, featuring historic cities like Samarkand and Bukhara. Geography: The region is defined as the area between the Amu Darya (Oxus) to the south and the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) to the north.
-324: Chandragupta Maurya conquered the Nanda Empire from the king Dhana Nand and founded the Maurya Empire and became the first emperor to unify north and south west of present-day India into one state with the guidance of Chanakya.
Significance: Known in Arabic as Mā Warāʾ al-Nahr, it was a vital hub of Silk Road commerce and a center of Islamic civilization. It was crucial to the development of early science, mathematics, and paper production, with figures like Al-Khwarizmi hailing from the region. History & Conquests: Antiquity: Originally part of Sogdiana and Bactria, it was conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC.
-329:[History] The 4th century BC conquest of Transoxiana was primarily achieved by Alexander the Great between 329 and 327 BC. After defeating the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander crossed the Oxus River (Amu Darya) into Sogdiana and Bactria, facing fierce resistance from local leaders like Spitamenes before securing the region. Alexander’s campaign brought the region under Greek influence (Hellenization) and integrated it into his rapidly expanding empire. The Sogdians and Bactrians, led by Spitamenes, engaged in prolonged guerilla warfare against Macedonian troops, particularly around cities like Marakanda (Samarkand). The region served as a crucial, wealthy frontier of the Persian Empire and then the Hellenistic world, controlling vital Silk Road trade routes between the East and West. Although the conquest was brutal, it introduced Greek culture and military strategies to Central Asia, paving the way for the subsequent Greco-Bactrian kingdoms.
-326: Alexander reached the Indus River Valley and India. He urged his armies to continue eastward, but they refused to go any further. They had been fighting for 11 years and had marched thousands of miles from home. Alexander was forced to turn back.-324: Chandragupta Maurya conquered the Nanda Empire from the king Dhana Nand and founded the Maurya Empire and became the first emperor to unify north and south west of present-day India into one state with the guidance of Chanakya.
-324: Kautilya’s economics - Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, was a renowned Indian philosopher, economist, and political strategist whose work, the Arthashastra, provides insights into ancient Indian economic thought. He emphasized the importance of agriculture, trade, and industry for national prosperity, advocating for a strong state role in managing these sectors and ensuring welfare for its citizens.
Chanakya was strongly of the view that the ultimate purpose of economics is to increase the welfare of the king's subjects and says “The King, the ministers, the country, the fortified city, the treasury, the army and the ally are the constituent elements of the state.”
-323: Alexander and his armies returned to Babylon. While they paused there, Alexander fell ill with a fever and died within days. He was 32 years old. Although he did not live to an old age, he managed to create a great empire. Because of his achievements, he is remembered as Alexander the Great. Alexander left Greeks behind to rule his lands. His victories led blend the Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian styles and customs that later came to known as Hellenistic culture. (Hellas was the Greek name for Greece.) This culture influenced the lands of the empire for hundreds of years. Learning was especially affected by the mingling of cultures. The combined knowledge of the Greeks, Egyptians, Arabs, and Indians made new discoveries possible in science and medicine.
-323: Euclid of Alexandria to distinguish him from Euclid of Megara, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "Father of Geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy from -323 to -283.
-323: Euclid of Alexandria to distinguish him from Euclid of Megara, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "Father of Geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy from -323 to -283.
-323:While some sources mention hotels established earlier, such as the Hotel Saratoga by Alexander the Great, these were not continuously operating hotels. The Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan is the only one recognized by Guinness World Records (2011) as the oldest hotel still in operation.
-322: Aristotle died.
-322:[Book] Politics is a work of political philosophy by Aristotle, a 4th-century BC Greek philosopher.
Aristotle's Poetics (Greek: Περὶ ποιητικῆς Peri poietikês; Latin: De Poetica;[1] c. 335 BC[2]) is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory.
-322:[History] Mauryan Empire started to flourish from the kingdom of Magadh, capitaled at Patliputra (Now, Patna) spread across the regions of today's Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, China, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
-322: [India][FnB] Phulki (modern day Gol Gappe) during Mauryan Empire.
-322: Grand Trunk Road is one of the of South Asia's oldest and longest major roads. The road, often called as the "Gernaili Sadak" (the Generals' Road) and Sadak-e-Azam ('The Grand Road') covers a distance of 2,700 km (1,700 mi) running s through parts of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. [Oldest road in India]
-3xx:Rajasthani surnames are diverse, reflecting the state's rich history and various communities. Common surnames include those from Rajput clans like Rathore, Chauhan, Sisodia, and Bhati. Jat surnames include Punia, Beniwal, and Jakhar. Additionally, surnames like Sharma, Gupta, and Dixit are also found, often associated with Brahmin communities. Here's a more detailed breakdown: Rajput Clans and Surnames: Rathore: One of the major Rajput clans, known for their bravery and chivalry. Chauhan: Another prominent Rajput clan, with various sub-clans like Deora, Hada, and Khichi. Sisodia: Known for their lineage from Mewar and their strong sense of tradition. Bhati: A Rajput clan with a strong presence in the Jaisalmer region. Jadeja, Parmar, Solanki: Other notable Rajput clans found in Rajasthan. Jat Surnames: Punia, Beniwal, Jakhar: These are among the many Jat surnames that are prevalent in Rajasthan, reflecting their agricultural background. Sihag, Godara, Kaswan: Other Jat surnames found in the region. Other Surnames: Sharma: A common Brahmin surname, indicating a connection to knowledge and learning. Gupta: A surname with origins in Sanskrit, meaning "protector" or "governor". Dixit: Another Brahmin surname, historically associated with scholars and teachers. Jaiswal: A surname found among various communities including Kalwars, Jains, and Rajputs. Chaudhary: A title or surname used by various communities, often indicating a position of leadership or respect, according to Wikipedia.
-310:[Space][Who] Aristarchus of Samos was born. He later authored On the Sizes and Distances (of the Sun and Moon). He was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who presented the first known heliocentric model that placed the Sun at the center of the known universe, with the Earth revolving around the Sun once a year and rotating about its axis once a day.
-300:[Maths][Computing] In mathematics, the Euclidean algorithm, or Euclid's algorithm, is an efficient method for computing the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two integers (numbers), the largest number that divides them both without a remainder. It is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, who first described it in his Elements (c. 300 BC). It is an example of an algorithm, a step-by-step procedure for performing a calculation according to well-defined rules, and is one of the oldest algorithms in common use. It can be used to reduce fractions to their simplest form, and is a part of many other number-theoretic and cryptographic calculations.
-300: Chinese civil services.
-300: [History] Berossus was a Hellenistic-era Babylonian writer, a priest of Bel Marduk and astronomer who wrote in the Koine Greek language, and who was active at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Versions of two excerpts of his writings survive, at several removes from the original. [Book] Ancient fragments, containing what remains of the writings of Sanchoniatho, Berossus, Abydenus, Megasthenes, and Manetho: also the Hermetic Creed, the ... of Zoroaster, and the Periplus of Hanno.
-300: Stoicism is an ancient Greek philosophy (developed by Zeno of Citium around 300 B.C. as a refinement of Cynicism) which teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions.
-300: Stoicism is an ancient Greek philosophy (developed by Zeno of Citium around 300 B.C. as a refinement of Cynicism) which teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions.
-300: Yayoi period at Japan lasted till 250AD. Kofun, Asuka, Nara, Heian, Kamakura, Muromachi, Azuchi–Momoyama, Edo, Meiji, Taisho, Showa, and Heisi periods followed.
-300:The sati tradition, the practice of widow immolation on her husband's funeral pyre, has roots in ancient Indian customs, potentially predating written records. While early mentions exist in Greek sources around 300 BCE, it became more prominent in the medieval era, particularly among Rajput clans in northwestern India. The practice later spread and became more widespread during the late medieval period.
-300:[research][book][engg][geo] Around 300 BC, the Greek philosopher Theophrastus wrote about the relative hardness of stones in his treatise On Stones. Theophrastus was an ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist. A native of Eresos in Lesbos, he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy in Athens. Theophrastus discovered and established the foundational principles of botany and early ecology through systematic observation. (The name Theo-phrastus means "he of godlike speech" or "divine speaker" - theos = god; phrasis = "to phrase/speak") His given name was Tyrtamus, but he later became known by the nickname 'Theophrastus', given to him, it is said, by Aristotle to indicate the grace of his conversation.
-00:[research][bio][eco][book] Plant Classification: Theophrastus categorized roughly 550 plant species into trees, shrubs, undershrubs, and herbs in his seminal work Enquiry into Plants. Plant Physiology and Growth: He detailed plant germination, propagation via seeds and roots, and how parts like pith and wood function. Environmental Ecology: He recognized that plants depend on their specific habitats ("niches"), studying how soil, moisture, climate, and wind affect plant life. Plant-to-Plant Interactions: He observed relationships in nature, noting which plants thrive together and which act as "bad neighbors".
-300:The origin of the Rajputs, a prominent warrior class in India, is a subject of much debate and varied theories. While the term "Rajput" (meaning "son of a king") suggests a lineage tied to royalty, historical accounts and interpretations differ on their precise ancestry. Here's a breakdown of the main perspectives: 1. Kshatriya Origin: Some historians argue that Rajputs are direct descendants of the Vedic Kshatriyas, the warrior class in the traditional Hindu varna system. This theory is supported by Rajput traditions like the Ashvamedha sacrifice, Sati (widow immolation), and Sun worship, which were associated with Kshatriyas, according to Vision IAS. 2. Foreign Origin: Another theory proposes that Rajputs originated from foreign invaders who integrated into Indian society and were absorbed into the Kshatriya fold after undergoing purification rituals. The Agnikula (fire lineage) theory, which suggests that four Rajput clans (Chauhans, Chalukyas, Paramaras, and Pratiharas) emerged from a sacrificial fire pit, is sometimes cited as evidence for this theory. This theory also suggests the purification rites were performed for foreigners to assimilate them into Hinduism, according to self study history. 3. Tribal Origin: Some historians believe that Rajputs emerged from tribal groups who gradually adopted Kshatriya status and developed their own distinct identity. This theory emphasizes the diverse origins and cultural practices among Rajputs, suggesting that they may have incorporated various indigenous groups into their fold. 4. Mixed Origin: A more inclusive perspective suggests that Rajputs likely have a mixed origin, incorporating elements from Kshatriyas, foreign invaders, and tribal groups. This theory acknowledges the diverse lineages and cultural practices within Rajput communities and recognizes that their identity was shaped by a complex interplay of factors. 5. Period of Rise: Rajputs rose to prominence in the 6th to 12th centuries CE, particularly after the decline of the Gupta Empire. They established numerous kingdoms and played a significant role in the political and military landscape of northern, western, and central India. The Rajputs (Rajput Dynasty) - UPSC Notes » LotusArise In conclusion, the origin of Rajputs remains a subject of scholarly debate. While the Kshatriya origin theory has strong historical and traditional backing, the foreign and tribal origin theories, as well as the mixed origin perspective, also offer valuable insights into the complex and diverse background of this warrior clan.
Pahadi surnames, common in the Himalayan regions of India, particularly Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, often reflect caste, community, or ancestral origins. Some common Pahadi surnames include Rawat, Negi, Bisht, Joshi, Pant, Bhatt, and Chauhan. These surnames can be found across various communities and regions, with some having specific historical or social connotations.
The surname Rawat originates from the Indian subcontinent and is primarily associated with the Rajput community. It is derived from the Sanskrit word "Rajvata," meaning "ruler" or "kingdom". The term "Rawat" is also interpreted as a compound word where "Ra" signifies Rajput, "Va" represents Veer (brave), and "Ta" denotes Talwar (sword), suggesting a brave Rajput warrior. Historically, it was a title given to individuals known for their exceptional bravery or military prowess, and it later became a hereditary surname.
The surname Negi primarily originates from the northern Indian states of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. It is associated with the Garhwali and Kumaoni communities, often linked to Rajputs and Brahmins. Historically, "Negi" was a title given to individuals, particularly warriors, military commanders, and ministers, by kings, signifying righteousness and trustworthiness.
The surname Bisht originates from the Indian subcontinent, primarily associated with the Kumaoni and Garhwali communities in Uttarakhand. It's derived from the Sanskrit word "Vishisht," meaning "distinguished" or "prestigious". Historically, Bisht was a title bestowed by kings upon nobles and also referred to individuals holding land grants.
The surname "Pant" has its origins in India and Nepal, primarily among the Brahmin community. In Sanskrit, "Panth" (पंथ) means path or sect, and it was historically a title given to learned Brahmins, especially those involved in religious discourse and administration. The name is particularly associated with individuals from Uttarakhand and Maharashtra.
The surname "Bhatt" originates from the Sanskrit word "Bhatta," meaning scholar or learned man. It is primarily associated with Brahmin communities in India, particularly those in Kashmir and other regions of North and West India. The name signifies expertise in religious texts, rituals, and scholarship. While primarily a Brahmin surname, it has also been adopted by some Kashmiri Muslims who converted from Hinduism, often appearing as "Butt" in those communities.
According to legend, the ancestor of the Rajput clan bearing this name emerged from a sacrificial fire with four arms, and so the name was associated with the Sanskrit word chatur- meaning 'four', but this is no more than folk etymology. Chauhan is a surname of various Indian communities. It is found among the Rajput, Bhil, Dhobi, Lonia, Orh Ror, Pateliya caste groups found in the Indian states of Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand and Bihar. Who was the founder of the Chauhan Dynasty? As referenced in bijolia inscriptions, Vasudeva Chauhan was the founder of the Chauhan dynasty in 551 AD.
According to modern scholars, the word "rajput" meant 'horse soldier', 'trooper', 'headman of a village' or 'subordinate chief' before the 15th century. Individuals or groups with whom the word "rajput" was associated are generally considered varna–samkara ("mixed caste origin") and inferior to Kshatriya.
Himachali surnames are diverse, reflecting the state's rich cultural and social fabric. Common surnames include Singh, Sharma, and Verma, often associated with Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Other surnames like Katoch, associated with Rajputs, and various tribal surnames also populate the region. Additionally, certain sub-castes within communities like Kayasthas and Jats have distinct surnames.
General/Common Surnames: Singh: A widely used surname, particularly among Rajputs and Sikhs. Sharma: A common Brahmin surname. Verma: Another surname found among Brahmins and other castes. Rajput Surnames: Katoch: A prominent Rajput clan, especially in Himachal Pradesh, with sub-clans like Jaswal, Siba, and Guleria. Thakur: A title used by Kanets, who were historically considered an agricultural caste. Kayastha Surnames: Bhatnagar, Mathur, Srivastava, Nigam, Saxena: These sub-caste names are used as surnames by Kayasthas in Himachal Pradesh. Pandiya, Raizada, Rai, Sarkar: These titles are also used by Kayasthas. Other Notable Surnames: Ad Dharmi: A Chamar caste sect in Punjab, also found in Himachal. Baharwal: A clan of Gujjars. Kumhar: A community associated with pottery. Jat surnames: Kundhal, Gill, Kaundal, Syal, Randhawa, Sandhu, Sidhu, etc. Tribal surnames: Various tribal communities have their own distinct surnames.
Sindhi surnames often end with the suffix "-ani", denoting descent from a common male ancestor, and are derived from the names of ancestors or places. Some examples include Advani, Vaswani, Thadani, and Mirchandani. Other surnames, particularly in northern Sindh, end in "-ja", meaning "of". Additionally, some Sindhi surnames are derived from castes like Bajaj, Ahuja, and Bhatia.
Surnames ending in "-ani": Patronymic Origin: Many Sindhi surnames are patronymic, meaning they are derived from the name of a male ancestor, with "-ani" added to indicate descent. Examples: Advani, Vaswani, Thadani, Mirchandani, Jethmalani, Kukreja, Raheja, etc. Surnames not ending in "-ani": "-ja" suffix: Some Sindhi surnames in northern Sindh end in "-ja," which means "of". Examples: Khatri, Chawla, Bhatia, Bajaj, etc. Other: Surnames like Ahuja, Sachdev, and Nagdev are also used. Other notable points: Lohana community: A majority of Sindhi Hindus belong to the Lohana community and are divided into various sub-groups, each with their own surnames. Bhatias and Aroras: Other Sindhi communities include Bhatias and Aroras, who also have their own distinct surnames. Sufi influence: Sindhis, particularly those who are Muslim, have a strong Sufi influence.
Kashmiri surnames are diverse, reflecting the region's rich history and cultural influences. Some common surnames include Bhat, Dhar, Raina, Kaul, and Lone, among many others. These surnames are associated with various Kashmiri communities, including Pandits and Muslims.
Common Kashmiri Surnames:
Bhat/Butt: One of the most prevalent surnames, often associated with Kashmiri Brahmins.
Dhar/Dar: Another common surname, also frequently found among Kashmiri Brahmins.
Lone: A surname particularly associated with the Muslim community in Kashmir.
Kaul: A surname traditionally associated with Kashmiri Brahmins, often found within the Pandit community.
Raina: A surname frequently found among Kashmiri Pandits.
Kak: A surname with historical roots in Kashmir.
Kachru: A surname associated with Kashmiri Pandits.
Kichlu: A surname found among Kashmiri Pandits.
Mantu/Mantoo/Mintoo: A surname associated with Kashmiri Pandits.
Handoo: A surname found among Kashmiri Pandits.
Wali: A surname with a significant presence in Kashmiri society.
Tantray: A surname found among Kashmiri Muslims.
Parray: A surname associated with Kashmiri Muslims.
Razdan: A surname with historical significance in Kashmir.
Munshi: A surname associated with Kashmiri Pandits.
Sapru: A surname found among Kashmiri Pandits.
Zutshi: A surname associated with Kashmiri Pandits.
Magre/Magray: A surname found among Kashmiri Muslims.
Yatoo: A surname found among Kashmiri Muslims.
Wani: A surname associated with Kashmiri Muslims.
Sheikh: A common surname among Kashmiri Muslims.
Other Notable Surnames:
Shah: A surname signifying high social status.
Syed: A surname denoting descent from the Prophet Muhammad.
Bukhari: A surname associated with Sufi traditions.
Andrabi: A surname with Sufi connections.
Qadri: A surname associated with Sufism.
Mir: A common surname among Kashmiri Muslims.
Malik: A common surname among Kashmiri Muslims.
Rather: A surname found among Kashmiri Muslims.
Bazaz: A surname associated with a particular trade or profession.
Haksar: A surname with historical roots in Kashmir.
Pandit: A generic term for Kashmiri Brahmins, but also used as a surname.
Surnames Reflecting Caste and Occupation:
Some surnames also reflect the caste or profession of the family, such as "Zargar" (goldsmith), "Naqash" (painter), or "Waza" (cook).
In Conclusion: Kashmiri surnames provide a fascinating glimpse into the region's diverse cultural tapestry, with roots in both Hindu and Muslim communities, as well as various historical and social contexts.
In Kashmiri society, castes are broadly categorized into high, occupational, and low castes. High castes include those with surnames like Syed, Shah, Bukhari, and others, often seen as equivalent to Hindu Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Occupational castes are associated with specific professions, such as Wani (traders), Zargar (goldsmiths), and Bhat (scholars). Low castes, like the Wattals, face social discrimination, primarily due to the nature of their traditional work.
-287: Archimedes used Method of exhaustion (brute-force) to prove that the area of a circle is equal to the area of a triangle whose base is equal to radius of the circle and height is equal to the circumference of the circle.
-268: Ashoka reigned for 36 years.
-265: Vastest expansion of Mauryan Dynasty.
-264: The First Punic War started. It was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. Roman–Etruscan Wars. Roman conquest of Volsinii. Hydraulic Semaphore was used during the First Punic War to send messages between Sicily and Carthage. (True, successful war of extermination - the worst kind of war where no survivors are left on the losing side?)
-258: University of Nanjing, in China. It was only formally termed a “university” in 1888, but it has offered education to Chinese without the issuance of formal degrees for centuries.
-258: University of Nanjing, in China. It was only formally termed a “university” in 1888, but it has offered education to Chinese without the issuance of formal degrees for centuries.
-250:[History] Xi'an is widely recognized as the oldest city and the first, most historically significant ancient capital of China (The Great Qing), with a history spanning over 3,000 years. As the eastern terminus of the Silk Road and home to the Terracotta Army, it served as the imperial capital for 13 different dynasties.
-250:[Art] Beginning of sculpting the terracotta warriors - According to historical records, it might have taken around 40 years to build the Terracotta Army. Although there are no direct historical records of the Terracotta Warriors' existence, Emperor Qin Shi Huang began preparing for the construction of his mausoleum from the time he ascended the throne at the age of 13.
-232: [India][Polity] Mauryan Empire began to decline after the death of Ashoka in 232 BC. The last king was Brihadratha was assassinated in 185 BC-183 BC by his general Pushyamitra Shunga who was a Brahmin. The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka.
-232: [India][Polity] Mauryan Empire began to decline after the death of Ashoka in 232 BC. The last king was Brihadratha was assassinated in 185 BC-183 BC by his general Pushyamitra Shunga who was a Brahmin. The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka.
-232:[history] The Great Stupa at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh was also commissioned by Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century. Also known as Sanchi Stupa, it is among the oldest and most historically significant Buddhist monuments in the world. The massive dome enshrines relics of the Buddha. Travellers and photographers admire beautifully carved gateways or toranas.
-232:[history] A lesser-known historically rich monument, the Barabar Caves in Bihar are counted among the oldest surviving rock-cut structures in India. These date back to the 3rd century when the country was ruled by Emperor Ashoka. These caves were carved from solid granite and used by the Ajivika sect. People are generally left stunned with the highly polished interiors of the cave. These are simple yet gorgeous and ahead of time. The design shows early mastery of stone architecture.
-230:[Space][Who] Aristarchus of Samos (Greek: Ἀρίσταρχος) died aged 80 in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Kingdom.
He was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who presented the first known model that placed the Sun at the center of the known universe with the Earth revolving around it (see Solar system). He was influenced by Philolaus of Croton, but he identified the "central fire" with the Sun, and put the other planets in their correct order of distance around the Sun. Like Anaxagoras before him, he suspected that the stars were just other bodies like the Sun. His astronomical ideas were often rejected in favor of the incorrect geocentric theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy.
-230:[Space][Books] The book On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon was published by now. which is ascribed to Aristarchus (310–230 BCE), says the distance to the Sun is 18 to 20 times the distance to the Moon, whereas the true ratio is about 389.174. The latter estimate was based on the angle between the half-moon and the Sun, which he estimated as 87° (the true value being close to 89.853°). Depending on the distance that van Helden assumes Aristarchus used for the distance to the Moon, his calculated distance to the Sun would fall between 380 and 1,520 Earth radii. The book was presumably preserved by students of Pappus of Alexandria's course in mathematics, although there is no evidence of this.
He was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who presented the first known model that placed the Sun at the center of the known universe with the Earth revolving around it (see Solar system). He was influenced by Philolaus of Croton, but he identified the "central fire" with the Sun, and put the other planets in their correct order of distance around the Sun. Like Anaxagoras before him, he suspected that the stars were just other bodies like the Sun. His astronomical ideas were often rejected in favor of the incorrect geocentric theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy.
-230:[Space][Books] The book On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon was published by now. which is ascribed to Aristarchus (310–230 BCE), says the distance to the Sun is 18 to 20 times the distance to the Moon, whereas the true ratio is about 389.174. The latter estimate was based on the angle between the half-moon and the Sun, which he estimated as 87° (the true value being close to 89.853°). Depending on the distance that van Helden assumes Aristarchus used for the distance to the Moon, his calculated distance to the Sun would fall between 380 and 1,520 Earth radii. The book was presumably preserved by students of Pappus of Alexandria's course in mathematics, although there is no evidence of this.
-225: Gallic War of 225 BC.
-221: Qin Dynasty, the first imperial dynasty of China florished for 15 years till 206 BC.
-221: Qin Dynasty, the first imperial dynasty of China florished for 15 years till 206 BC.
-219:[Geography] Portugal's name originates from the Roman-Celtic settlement of Portus Cale, located near the Douro River, which is the site of present-day Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia. The name combines "Portus," meaning port, with "Cale," whose origin is debated but is thought to be related to the Celtic tribe, the Callaeci. Over time, "Portus Cale" evolved into "Portucale" and eventually "Portugal". The Kingdom of Portugal was officially established in 1143 after the Treaty of Zamora recognized its independence.
-219:[History] The Roman conquest of Portugal, which forms part of the larger Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, took place over several centuries, beginning with the Second Punic War (219-202 BC). Initially, Rome aimed to expel Carthaginians from the Iberian Peninsula, and in the process, they began to conquer the region that would become Lusitania (roughly central and southern Portugal). The conquest was not straightforward; Lusitanian tribes, particularly under the leadership of Viriathus, fiercely resisted Roman expansion, leading to protracted and challenging campaigns. By the end of the 1st century BC, however, Roman control was largely established, and Portugal, along with the rest of Iberia, became part of the Roman Empire.
-212: Archimedes was killed during the Second Punic War. He lived for 75 years. He contributed to Mathematics, Physics, Engineering, Astronomy, and Invention through his explored principle, Archimedes' screw, hydrostatics, levers, infinitesimals, and Neuseis constructions.
When Roman forces under General Marcus Claudius Marcellus captured the city of Syracuse after a two-year-long siege. According to the popular account given by Plutarch, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. The soldier was enraged by this, and killed Archimedes with his sword.
-210: the Great wall of China began construction.
When Roman forces under General Marcus Claudius Marcellus captured the city of Syracuse after a two-year-long siege. According to the popular account given by Plutarch, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. The soldier was enraged by this, and killed Archimedes with his sword.
-210: the Great wall of China began construction.
-210:[History][Art] The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE in his mausoleum with the purpose of protecting him in his afterlife. There is an army of over 8000 clay soldiers found to accompany emperor Qin in afterlife. Estimated in 2007. the terracotta warriors standing underneath the ground with most of them remained unearthed in the pits of Qin Shi Huang's Mausoleum. Zhao Kangmin: The man who 'discovered' China's terracotta army. Three of the original group of seven farmers died in terrible circumstances. One hanged himself in 1997, and two others died in their early 50s, penniless and unable to pay for medical care, according to the South China Morning Post. (Justice?)
-209: Xiongnu Empire formed in Mongolia.
-206:[History] Han Dynasty preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD).
-206:[History] Han Dynasty preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD).
-206:[Business] Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE):The formal opening of the Silk Road is attributed to the Han Dynasty's expansion and diplomatic missions, notably Zhang Qian's journeys. This era saw increased trade with Central Asia and beyond, introducing Chinese silk to the Roman Empire.
-200:[Geography][Anthro] The Thule people, ancestors of the modern Inuit, expanded across the Arctic region from around 200 BC to AD 1600.
-200: The author of the Mahābhāṣya, an ancient treatise on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics, based on the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini. This Patañjali's (Patanjali) life is dated to mid 2nd century BCE by both Western and Indian scholars.
-200:[Military] Kites were invented in China, possibly as early as the 5th century BC, by figures like Mozi and Lu Ban. Kites were invented in China thousands of years ago. The earliest written records of kite flying date back to 200 BC in China, where they were used for military purposes, measuring distances, and signaling. From China, kites spread to other parts of Asia and eventually to the rest of the world.
-200:[Business][GeoPolitics] The Maritime Silk Road (aka The Spice Routes) emerged from coastal trade routes and gradually expanded as shipbuilding technologies advanced, allowing for longer voyages. Austronesian sailors played a crucial role in establishing the early routes, utilizing sewn-plank and lashed-lug trade ships. While Austronesians were early pioneers, dhows of Persian and Arab traders, as well as Tamil merchants, also contributed to the network. The Maritime Silk Road was a historical sea route network that connected East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and Eastern Africa with Europe, facilitating trade and cultural exchange from around the 2nd century BCE to the 15th century CE. It originated from the need for trade and the desire to connect various civilizations across vast distances.
Key Regions and Routes: East Asia: China was a major starting point, with goods like silk and porcelain being transported. Southeast Asia: The routes passed through the South China Sea, the Strait of Malacca, and various islands, facilitating trade in spices and other commodities. South Asia: Ports in India, Sri Lanka, and other coastal regions served as vital hubs for trade and exchange. Arabian Peninsula: Arab dhows and traders played a significant role in the Arabian Sea, connecting with other parts of the network. East Africa: The route extended to East Africa, reaching ports like Mombasa, contributing to the exchange of goods and cultures. Europe: The Maritime Silk Road ultimately reached the Mediterranean, connecting with European trade networks. Significance: Trade and Commerce: The Maritime Silk Road facilitated the exchange of goods, including silk, spices, porcelain, precious stones, and other commodities, driving economic growth in various regions. Cultural Exchange: Beyond trade, the routes fostered the exchange of ideas, religions, and cultural practices, shaping the development of civilizations along the way. Strategic Importance: The routes were strategically important for connecting different parts of the world, creating a network of interconnected trade and cultural exchange. Modern Revival: 21st Century Maritime Silk Road: The concept of a Maritime Silk Road has been revived in recent times as part of China's "Belt and Road Initiative" (BRI), aiming to foster economic cooperation and development across various regions, including those along the historic Silk Road routes.
-200:[crime]c. 200 BCE: The Han Dynasty in China utilizes "white pigeon tickets" (Keno slips) to run state lotteries, directly helping fund public works including the Great Wall of China.
2nd century BCE started on the first day of -200.
-1xx: The compass was invented in China during the Han dynasty between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD where it was called the "south-governor"(sīnán 司南) or "South Pointing Fish" (指南魚).[3] The magnetic compass was not, at first, used for navigation, but for geomancy and fortune-telling by the Chinese. The earliest Chinese magnetic compasses were possibly used to order and harmonize buildings by the geomantic principles of feng shui. These early compasses were made with lodestone, a form of the mineral magnetite that is a naturally occurring magnet and aligns itself with the Earth's magnetic field.
-1xx: Tobacco is derived from the leaves of the genus Nicotiana, a plant from the night-shade family, indigenous to North and South America. Archeological studies suggest the use of tobacco in around first century BC, when Maya people of Central America used tobacco leaves for smoking, in sacred and religious ceremonies.
-180: circle was defined as 360 degrees or 360°.
-185: [India] Fall of Mauryan Empire??? Mauryan Empire (ca. 323–185 B.C.); Mauryan dynasty (ca. 321–185 B.C.)
-185: [Book][History] History of India 600 B.C. to 185 B.C. by Dr. AK Chaturvedi.
-187:
-175: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, (died 152 BC), Roman statesman who held the highest offices of the republic.
-165: Titus Manlius Torquatus became Counsel in Roman Republic. Titus Manlius Torquatus was a politician of the Roman Republic, who became consul in 165 BC. Born into a prominent family, he sought to emulate the legendary severity of his ancestors, notably by forcing his son to commit suicide after he had been accused of corruption. Titus had a long career and was a respected jurist. He was also active in diplomatic affairs; he notably served as ambassador to Egypt in 162 BC in a mission to support the claims of Ptolemy VIII Physcon over Cyprus.
-150:[Art] Alexandros of Antioch's Venus de Milo, an ancient Greek 6'8" sculpture from the Hellenistic period, depicting a Greek goddess. It is one of the most famous works of ancient Greek sculpture, discovered on 8 April 1820 by a peasant.
-149:[polity] Roman Law: The word 'extortion' comes from Roman times, where extortio meant a magistrate using their official power to steal money. Rome even created special courts (repetundae) around 149 BC to stop provincial governors from robbing local people. Abuse of Office: For centuries, laws treated extortion mainly as a crime of official corruption—where people with power charged illegal fees—rather than a crime done by regular citizens.
-140: first trigonometry was discovered.
-130:[Geography][GeoPolitics] The Silk Road, a network of trade routes connecting the East and West, formally opened during the Han Dynasty in China around 130 BCE and remained active until the 15th century CE. This period, spanning over 1,500 years, facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between Asia, Europe, and Africa.
-117:[Book] Polybius' Histories begin in the year 264 BC and end in 146 BC (Polybius was born around 200 BC and died around 117 BC). He is primarily concerned with the 53 years in which Ancient Rome became a dominant world power. This period, from 220–167 BC, saw Rome subjugate Carthage and gain control over Hellenistic Greece.
-114: Silk Road. A path traversed by caravans laden with silk, spices and much more besides, the old Silk Road influenced trade, religions, cultures and economies across Europe, Asia and far beyond.
-108: Ancient Korea flourished.
-100: Charak Samhita revised by Charaka, (a Kashmiri by origin) and the manuscripts that survive into the modern era are based on one completed by Dṛḍhabala
2nd century BCE ended on the last day of -101.
-74:[Bio][Culture] Broad Diversity of Cockroaches: Out of roughly 4,500 to 5,000 known cockroach species, more than 99% live harmlessly in wild habitats like tropical forests, caves, and rotting vegetation rather than near human homes. The German Cockroach (Blattella germanica): Recent genetic tracking shows that this prominent household pest did not originate in Europe or Africa as once thought; rather, it evolved from the Asian cockroach (Blattella asahinai) in South/Southeast Asia (such as India and Myanmar) around 2,100 years ago as it adapted to human settlements and global trade (read more at AgriLife Today). Explore how cockroaches evolved resistance to modern insecticides or look closer at their genetic relationship with termites?
-50:[Research][Space][Computing] Antikythera wreck around -50 to -60, the boat had a device (a machine) of incredible complexity designed to map the motion of the moon, the sun and the planets to simulate the universe.
-47:Cleopatra's first child, a son named Caesarion, was born in 47 BC. Cleopatra claimed that his father was none other than Julius Caesar: the famous Roman general and politician who had a brief affair with Cleopatra during his stay in Egypt.
-44:[Book] De Officiis (On Duties or On Obligations) is a 44 BC treatise by Marcus Tullius Cicero divided into three books, in which Cicero expounds his conception of the best way to live, behave, and observe moral obligations. The work discusses what is honorable (Book I), what is to one's advantage (Book II), and what to do when the honorable and private gain apparently conflict (Book III). For the first two books Cicero was dependent on the Stoic philosopher Panaetius, but wrote more independently for the third book.
-44:[crime] The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE was a conspiracy among senators rather than a commercial financial transaction.
-43: Ovid was born in 43 BC in central Italy. He was sent to Rome where he realised that his talent lay with poetry rather than with politics. His first published work was 'Amores', a collection of short love poems. He was expelled in A.D. 8 by Emperor Augustus for an unknown reason and went to Tomis on the Black Sea, where he died in AD 17.
-40:Herod was a competent ruler. In 40 BCE he traveled through Egypt and Cleopatra tried to seduce him but Herod rejected her.
-30: Antony loves Cleopatra (-43), but marries Caesar's sister so that they can be friends, but then leaves and goes to Cleopatra again. Caesar gets mad and everyone dies in 30 BCE.
--------------------------------------------------- Roman Empire -----------------------------------------------------
-27: Roman Republic ends with the establishment of the Roman Empire. While there were elections each year, the Republic was not a democracy, but an oligarchy. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (/əˈɡrɪpə/; 63 BC – 12 BC) was a Roman general, statesman, architect and the last counsel of Roman Republic who was a close friend, son-in-law, and lieutenant to the Roman emperor Augustus. He was responsible for the construction of some of the most notable buildings in history, including the original Pantheon, and is well known for his important military victories, notably the Battle of Actium in 31 BC against the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra.
another last counsel: Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor, reigning from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. His status as the founder of the Roman Principate (the first phase of the Roman Empire) has consolidated a legacy as one of the most effective leaders in human history. The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana. The Roman world was largely free from large-scale conflict for more than two centuries, despite continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers and the year-long civil war known as the "Year of the Four Emperors" over the imperial succession.
-27:[Book] Ab Urbe Condita Libri (written between -27 and -9) by Livy, a Roman historian.
-27:[Women] Livia Drusilla (30 January 59 BC – AD 29) was Roman empress from 27 BC to AD 14 as the wife of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. She was known as Julia Augusta after her formal adoption into the Julia gens in AD 14.
-19:[Book] Virgil's Aeneid (written between -29 and -19, Virgil lived between -70 and -19) tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who fled the fall of Troy and travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans. It comprises 9,896 lines in dactylic hexameter. The first six of the poem's twelve books tell the story of Aeneas' wanderings from Troy to Italy, and the poem's second half tells of the Trojans' ultimately victorious war upon the Latins, under whose name Aeneas and his Trojan followers are destined to be subsumed. (Characters: Aeneas, Turnus, Dido, Juno, Venus)
(Aeneas - the loser who wrote history; Aeneas is a prominent figure in Greco-Roman mythology, known as a Trojan hero, the son of Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite (Venus in Roman mythology). He is a key figure in Virgil's Aeneid, where he is depicted leading Trojan refugees to Italy and establishing a new Trojan state, ultimately becoming an ancestor of Romulus and Remus, founders of Rome. )
(Dice and their forerunners are the oldest gaming implements known to man. Sophocles reported that dice were invented by the legendary Greek Palamedes during the siege of Troy, whereas Herodotus maintained that they were invented by the Lydians in the days of King Atys. Ancient civilizations used various methods to generate random outcomes, including dice, coins, and games, often for divination or to seek divine intervention. )
-6: Jesus was born. Jesus (c. 4 BC – c. AD 30 / 33), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ, was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious leader (earlier, Eesa, Moosa, Moses). He is the central figure of Christianity. Most Christians believe he is the incarnation of God the Son and the awaited Messiah (the Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament. Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically, although the quest for the historical Jesus has yielded major uncertainty on the historical reliability of the Gospelsand on how close…
We can estimate when Jesus was born by counting backward from his death on Passover, Nisan 14 in the spring of the year 33 C.E. (John 19:14-16) Jesus was about 30 years old when he began his three-and-a-half-year ministry, so he was born in the early fall of 2 B.C.E.— Luke 3:23.
-5:
-4:
-3:
-2:
-1:
0:
1st century CE started on 1st Jan 1 AD
AD:
1:
The first millennium CE (Common Era), also known as the 1st millennium, spans from the years 1 to 1000. It is the period following the year 0 (which does not exist in the Gregorian calendar) and precedes the second millennium. This era encompasses the first 10 centuries of the current calendar system.
Slow population growth over the 8,000-year period—from an estimated 5 million in 8000 B.C.E. to 300 million in 1 C.E.—results in a very low growth rate of only 0.05% per year. It’s difficult to come up with an average world population size for this period. In all likelihood, human populations in different regions grew or declined in response to food availability, the variability of animal herds, periods of peace or hostility, and changing weather and climatic conditions.
The New Testament books were written by early Christians in the first century AD. Some of the earliest New Testament writings are believed to be the letters of Paul, written around 50-60 AD. The New Testament also includes the four Gospels, accounts of Jesus's life and teachings, as well as other letters and the Book of Revelation.
Christianity developed out of Second Temple Judaism in the 1st century CE. It is founded on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and those who follow it are called Christians. Islam developed in the 7th century CE. (Bible)
The ancient name for Mecca, according to Islamic tradition, is Bakkah. Bakkah is also mentioned in the Quran as an alternative name for Mecca. It is believed to be the original, more ancient name for the city and its surrounding valley.
1 AD:[FnB] [Botany] Basmati rice originated in the Indian subcontinent, specifically in the Indo-Gangetic plains, near the foothills of the Himalayas. Its history can be traced back centuries, with mentions in ancient Sanskrit texts. The term "Basmati" itself is derived from Sanskrit words meaning "fragrant" or "aromatic". The cultivation of Basmati rice has been a long-standing tradition in this region, with evidence suggesting it has been grown since 1st century. Basmati rice gained popularity over time, becoming a favored choice in royal feasts and special occasions. It was later introduced to the Middle East by Indian traders. While both India and Pakistan are major producers of Basmati rice, with India holding a larger share of the global market, Pakistan is also known for its high-quality Basmati varieties and exports.
1:[Maths][Telco] The concept of imaginary numbers can be traced back even further to the 1st century, with Hero of Alexandria, who encountered negative square roots while calculating the volume of a frustum of a pyramid.
1:[Maths] The Indian Siddhantas, a collection of astronomical texts, originated around the beginning of the first millennium CE, replacing the earlier Vedanga Jyotisha tradition. These texts, meaning "established theory", detailed various astronomical concepts and introduced a greater application of mathematics and computations compared to their predecessors. The most well-known is the Surya-Siddhanta, believed to have been composed between the 4th and 6th centuries CE. The texts incorporated both the zodiac signs (inherited from Greek astronomy) and the Nakshatras (lunar mansions), a system of Indian astronomy.
1:[Maths] The earliest developments of trigonometry, including the sine function, are found in the Siddhantas, which defined the sine as the relationship between half an angle and half a chord. Aryabhata, around 476-550 AD, collected and expanded upon these ideas in his work, the Aryabhatiya.
1:[Maths] Sine and cosine functions were not invented by a single person, but rather developed over centuries through contributions from various mathematicians and civilizations. The concept of the sine function originated in ancient India with the Siddhantas, which defined it as the modern relationship between half an angle and half a chord. Later, Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata and Bhaskara I further refined and expanded upon these ideas. The term "sine" itself has an interesting history, stemming from a mistranslation of the Sanskrit word for "bowstring". The cosine function was also developed in India and later by Arab mathematicians like Al-Battani, who compiled trigonometric tables including both sine and cosine values.
1: In Europe, the 0s saw the continuation of conflict between the Roman Empire and Germanic tribes in the Early Imperial campaigns in Germania. Vinicius, Tiberius and Varus led Roman forces in multiple punitive campaigns, before sustaining a major defeat at the hands of Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Concurrently, the Roman Empire fought the Bellum Batonianum against a rebelling alliance of native peoples led by Bato the Daesitiate in Illyricum, which was suppressed in AD 9. A conflict also took place in Korea, where Daeso, King of Dongbuyeo invaded Goguryeo with a 50,000-man army in AD 6. He was forced to retreat when heavy snow began to fall, stopping the conflict until the next decade. In China, the last ruler of the Chinese Western Han dynasty (Ruzi Ying) was deposed, allowing Wang Mang to establish the Xin dynasty.
1: Estimates for the world population by AD 1 range from 170 to 300 million. A census was concluded in China in AD 2: final numbers showed a population of nearly 60 million (59,594,978 people in slightly more than 12 million households). The census is one of the most accurate surveys in Chinese history.
1:[AMER] The Hopewell Culture was a significant prehistoric tradition in eastern North America (Ohio and Illinois), characterized by its intricate burial mounds, complex village societies, and an extensive network of trade. This network, known as the Hopewell Interaction Sphere, facilitated the exchange of goods across a vast area. Hopewell sites, particularly in the Scioto Valley of southern Ohio, feature prominent burial mounds and earthworks, reflecting their rich material culture.
1:[AMER] The Marksville culture was an archaeological culture (spread over 200 acres) in the lower Lower Mississippi valley, Yazoo valley, and Tensas valley areas of present-day Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, and extended eastward along the Gulf Coast to the Mobile Bay area, from 100 BCE to 400 CE. This culture takes its name from the Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana. Marksville Culture was contemporaneous with the Hopewell cultures within present-day Ohio and Illinois. It evolved from the earlier Tchefuncte culture and into the Baytown and Troyville cultures, and later the Coles Creek and Plum Bayou cultures. It is considered ancestral to the historic Natchez and Taensa peoples.
1:[AMER] Pueblos in the USA refer to the historic and modern Native American settlements and communities of the Pueblo peoples, primarily located in the southwestern United States, particularly in New Mexico and Arizona. These communities are known for their unique architecture and culture, and the word "pueblo" is also used to describe their villages.
1:[crime] 1st Century CE (Greco-Roman World): Thermopolia in Pompeii and Roman taverns act as commercial food and wine shops where lower-class citizens gather to drink unceremoniously. Communal Outlets to Regulated Taverns: Transitioned from basic residential rooms serving home-brewed fermented grains to state-taxed, official public meeting houses.
14:These short life expectancies mean that the human population had a hard time increasing. One estimate of the population of the Roman Empire, spanning Spain to Asia Minor, in 14 C.E. is 45 million. Other historians, however, set the figure twice as high, suggesting how imprecise population estimates of early historical periods can be.
16: The Romans used pigeon messengers to aid their military.
30: Crucifixion of Jesus. According to the canonical gospels, Jesus, the Christ, was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged, and finally crucified by the Romans. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews died some six hours later after cruxification.
43: Romans invaded Britain and ruled for around 350 years (43AD - 410AD) just like British were present in India for around 350 years (1600-1947).
16: The Romans used pigeon messengers to aid their military.
30:[Anthro][Culture] Roman Conquest of Egypt. Traditional religion declines and is eventually replaced by Christianity and Islam
43: Romans invaded Britain and ruled for around 350 years (43AD - 410AD) just like British were present in India for around 350 years (1600-1947).
68:[Book] The Annals was Tacitus' final work and provides a key source for modern understanding of the history of the Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Tiberius in AD 14 to the end of the reign of Nero, in AD 68.
78: The Hindu Saka calander began with the Saka Era.
78: The Hindu Saka calander began with the Saka Era.
79:[cinema] the cataclysmic destruction of the city of Pompeii by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79
86: [History] Arrian was born. Arrian of Nicomedia (/ˈæriən/; Greek: Ἀρριανός Arrianos; Latin: Lucius Flavius Arrianus; c. 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD) was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.
1xx: Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called Parallel Lives (Greek: Βίοι Παράλληλοι, Bíoi Parállēloi) or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of biographies of famous men, arranged in tandem to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings, probably written at the beginning of the second century AD.
The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian is considered the best source on the campaigns of Alexander the Great.
1xx: Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called Parallel Lives (Greek: Βίοι Παράλληλοι, Bíoi Parállēloi) or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of biographies of famous men, arranged in tandem to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings, probably written at the beginning of the second century AD.
1xx:[Book] Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called Parallel Lives or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of 48 biographies of famous men, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings, probably written at the beginning of the second century AD. Re-published in 1517.
1xx:[Economics] The phrase "black swan" derives from a Latin expression; its oldest known occurrence is from the 2nd-century Roman poet Juvenal's characterization in his Satire VI of something being "rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cygno" ("a rare bird in the lands and very much like a black swan"). When the phrase was coined, the black swan was presumed not to exist.
100: Irish Dark Age. Ireland had hit population levels and standards of living. The population was entirely rural and dispersed, with small ringforts the largest centres of human occupation. Some 40,000 of these are known, while there may have been as many as 50,000.
100: Etruscan had been replaced by Latin. The Etruscan language is also believed to be the source of certain important cultural words of Western Europe such as 'military' and 'person', which do not have obvious Indo-European roots.
100: Irish Dark Age. Ireland had hit population levels and standards of living. The population was entirely rural and dispersed, with small ringforts the largest centres of human occupation. Some 40,000 of these are known, while there may have been as many as 50,000.
100: Etruscan had been replaced by Latin. The Etruscan language is also believed to be the source of certain important cultural words of Western Europe such as 'military' and 'person', which do not have obvious Indo-European roots.
100: Ptolemy born in Egypt, Roman Empire. He lived for 70Y and died in Alexandria, Egypt. Ptolemy, the famous 2nd centaury geographer, marked Agra, later an Indian heritage city on the world map.
100:In any case, life was short. Life expectancy at birth probably averaged only about 10 years for most of human history. Average life expectancy in Iron Age France (from 800 B.C.E. to about 100 C.E.) has been estimated at only 10 or 12 years. Under these conditions, the birth rate would have to be about 80 live births per 1,000 people just for the species to survive. To put that in perspective, a high birth rate today is about 35 to 45 live births per 1,000 population, and it is observed in only some sub-Saharan African countries.
1st century CE ended on 31st Dec 100 AD.
2nd century CE started on 1st Jan 101 AD
1xx:The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The term Antarctic, referring to the opposite of the Arctic Circle, was coined by Marinus of Tyre in the 2nd century AD. The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. Ancient Greek philosophers, based on symmetry, theorized the existence of a large southern landmass to balance the known northern lands, calling it Ant-Arktos (opposite the bear).
1xx: Vātsyāyana was an ancient Indian philosopher, known for authoring the Kama Sutra. He lived in India during the second or third century CE, probably in Pataliputra. He is not to be confused with Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana, the author of Nyāya Sutra Bhāshya, the first preserved commentary on Gotama's Nyāya Sutras.
1xx:[Space] Ursa Major (Ursa Major/Big dipper/Great Bear) has been reconstructed as an Indo-European constellation. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century AD astronomer Ptolemy in his Almagest, who called it Arktos Megale. It is mentioned by such poets as Homer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Tennyson and also by Federico Garcia Lorca, in "Song for the Moon". Ancient Finnish poetry also refers to the constellation, and it features in the painting Starry Night Over the Rhône by Vincent van Gogh. It may be mentioned in the biblical book of Job, dated between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, although this is often disputed.
1xx: Arabia Petraea or simply Arabia existed from the 2nd century onwards. Including regions in Jordan, Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northwestern Arabian Peninsula.
1xx: The Asaṭīr (Arabic: الاساطير, al-Asāṭīr), also known as the Samaritan Book of the Secrets of Moses, is a collection of Samaritan Biblical legends, parallel to the Jewish Midrash, and which draws heavily upon oral traditions known among Jews in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. Moses Gaster places its compilation about the middle or end of the third century BCE, and rendered a translation of the work in 1927 with the Royal Asiatic Society in London.
109: According to Sri Lankan History(also mention in Wikipedia) During the Sinhalese king Vankanasika Thissa [109-112 CE] Chola king invaded Sri Lanka and took 12000 men as Prisoners to work on a project on Kaveri river. (As Sri Lankans, by that time had built thousands of reservoirs in Sri lanka, they had acquired expertise in working on reservoirs) . later , Vankanasika Thissa's Son King Gajabahu I [112-134CE], invaded South india and liberated the 12000 Sinhalese prisoners and also took another 12000 of Tamil men as prisoners to Sri Lanka. He had settled these men in various parts of the country. Times mentioned in Kallanai Dam history and King Vankanasika Thissa's reign appears to be very close.
130:Marinus of Tyre (Ancient Greek: Μαρῖνος ὁ Τύριος, Marînos ho Týrios; c. AD 70–130) was a geographer, cartographer and mathematician, who founded mathematical geography and provided the underpinnings of Claudius Ptolemy's influential Geography.
150: Kallanai (also known as the Grand Anicut) is an ancient dam built by Karikala of Chola dynasty in 150 CE. It was built (in running water) across the Kaveri river flowing from Tiruchirapalli District to Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, India. The dam is located in Thanjavur district,[1][2][3] 15 km from Tiruchirapalli and 45 km from Thanjavur.[4][5][6] It is the fourth oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structure in the world and the oldest in India that is still in use.[7][8] Because of its spectacular architecture, it is one of the prime tourist spots in Tamil Nadu.
170: Claudius Ptolemy (/ˈtɒləmi/; Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Ptolemaios; Latin: Claudius Ptolemaeus; c. 100 – c. 170 AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic, and Western European science. Where was the Stone Tower that the great geographer Claudius Ptolemy had written about? This highly significant but now-lost landmark represented the midpoint and thumping heart of the Silk Road, as merchant caravans plied their wares between the Occident and the Orient. the Stone Tower's probable location somewhere by the so-called Roof of the World.
175: Ammonius Saccas was a Greek philosopher from Alexandria who was often referred to as one of the founders of Neoplatonism. He is mainly known as the teacher of Plotinus, whom he taught for eleven years from 232 to 243. Died at the age of 65 in Alexandria, Egypt.
180: much before 180, Etruscan language extinct.
2xx: Peter became the first bishop of Rome and founded the episcopal.
200: The treatise To the Emperors on Fate and Responsibility by Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 AD) is perhaps the most comprehensive discussion of this complex issue surviving from antiquity.
200:[FnB] The potato is native to the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes. It was cultivated in South America by the Incas as early as 1,800 years ago. The Spaniards who colonized South America introduced potatoes into Europe during the second half of the 16th century.
175: Ammonius Saccas was a Greek philosopher from Alexandria who was often referred to as one of the founders of Neoplatonism. He is mainly known as the teacher of Plotinus, whom he taught for eleven years from 232 to 243. Died at the age of 65 in Alexandria, Egypt.
180: much before 180, Etruscan language extinct.
2xx: Peter became the first bishop of Rome and founded the episcopal.
200: The treatise To the Emperors on Fate and Responsibility by Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 AD) is perhaps the most comprehensive discussion of this complex issue surviving from antiquity.
200:[FnB] The potato is native to the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes. It was cultivated in South America by the Incas as early as 1,800 years ago. The Spaniards who colonized South America introduced potatoes into Europe during the second half of the 16th century.
200: Map of the kingdoms of Osroene, Hatra, and Adiabene in Mesopotamia in 200 CE . The Kingdom of Emesa [Arab]
2nd century CE ended on 31st Dec 200 AD.
3rd century CE started on 1st Jan 201 AD.
204: Plotinus born. He was a major Greek-speaking philosopher of the ancient world. In his philosophy there are three principles: the One, the Intellect, and the Soul. His teacher was Ammonius Saccas and he is of the Platonic tradition. Schools of thought: Neoplatonism.
212:Augustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests his father's ancestors were freedmen of the gens Aurelia given full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born. It is assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name, but as his family were honestiores, an upper class of citizens known as honorable men, Augustine's first language was likely Latin.
220: The Three Kingdoms War in China. The Three Kingdoms of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu dominated China from 220 to 280 AD following the end of the Han dynasty. The war lasted for 60 years, killed 40,000,000 people in China (they lost about 70% of their population.)
233: Porphyry of Tyre Born. He was a Neoplatonic philosopher who was born in Tyre (Lebanon), in the Roman Empire. He edited and published the Enneads, the only collection of the work of his teacher Plotinus.
236:[China] Emperor Wu was born, he is known for his potency, extravagance and sensuality. Sima Yan was born to Sima Zhao and his wife Wang Yuanji, daughter of the Confucian scholar Wang Su, in 236, as their oldest son. At that time, Sima Zhao was a mid-level official in the government of Cao Wei and a member of a privileged clan, as the son of the general Sima Yi. After Sima Yi seized power from the regent Cao Shuang in February 249 in the Incident at the Gaoping Tombs, Sima Zhao became more influential in the state. After his father's death in September 251, Sima Zhao became the assistant to his brother, the new regent Sima Shi. After Sima Shi died in March 255, Sima Zhao became regent and the paramount authority in the Wei government.
240: Śri Gupta (a Vaiṣṇavite), the founder of Gupta dynasty in northern India reigned for 40 years.
250:[Culture][Civilization] Golden age for Mayans empire. The Mayans (ruled for 650 years) are Mesoamerican civilizations developed by its people called the Maya. It is known for its advanced and beautiful writing system, culture, arts, math, calendar, and astronomical system. The Mayans are the people, which had a well developed written language in ancient American period. They are known for the advancement in art, architecture and other scientific fields. The concept of absolute zero is developed by Mayans, initially. Moreover, they are also called as founders of telepathy. Human sacrifice was another ritual in Maya civilization.
250:[FnB] Chia seeds have a rich history, originating thousands of years ago in Central America. Ancient civilizations like the Aztecs (1300 - 1521) and Mayans (250 - 900) cultivated and consumed chia seeds as a staple food and for medicinal purposes. The word "chia" itself comes from the Nahuatl word "chian," meaning oily, a reference to the seeds' high oil content.
266:[China] Emperor Wu (reign 8-Feb-266 to 16 May 290) was also known for his extravagance and sensuality, especially after the unification of China; legends boasted of his incredible potency among ten thousand (10,000) concubines. Emperor Wu was commonly viewed as generous and kind, but also wasteful.
270:[Culture] Sinterklaas is based on the historical figure of Saint Nicholas (270–343), a Greek bishop of Myra in present-day Turkey. He is depicted as an elderly, stately and serious man with white hair and a long, full beard. This led to evolution of Santa Claus.
280: Ghatotkacha, the progenitor of the Gupta dynasty reigned for around 40 years.
3xx: Roman glassmakers built colorful glass windows for cathedrals using metal nanoparticles.
280: Ghatotkacha, the progenitor of the Gupta dynasty reigned for around 40 years.
3xx: Roman glassmakers built colorful glass windows for cathedrals using metal nanoparticles.
3xx - 4xx:[Art][Drama][Philosophy][India] Kālidāsa (fl. 1th century BCE) was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient India's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and the Purāṇas.[1] His surviving works consist of three plays, two epic poems and two shorter poems. He is also known as the Indian Shakespeare.
3xx: The construction of the Tirupati temple goes back to around 300 AD during the reign of King Thondaiman of Tondaimandalam kingdom. Later various kings and queens expanded the temple construction and administered the happenings inside the temple complex. Pallava Queen Samavati had donated her precious jewels and 23 acres of land to the temple.
35x:[Polity][Military] A bronze statue of Dhamar Ali Yahbur II, a Himyarite king who reigned in late 3rd or early 4th century CE. Displayed in the Sana'a National Museum.
3rd century CE ended on 31st Dec 300 AD.
4th century CE started on 1st Jan 301 AD.
3xx: Externsteine, in northern Germany, has been a sacred site since prehistoric times, first used by pagans and later on by Christians. Externsteine consists of five enormous limestone pillars that are in astronomical alignment.
By the 4th century AD, Christianity had established the New Testament canon, which is generally accepted by most Christians today.
3xx:[tour][de] The Black Forest in southwest Germany is a historic mountain range spanning 6,009 square kilometers, known originally as a Celtic and Roman borderland before growing into a hub for forestry, mining, and folklore. Celtic roots: The Celts first called the mountains Abnoba Mons after their deity Abnoba.Roman border: The Romans named it Silva Marciana (border forest) in the 4th century, using it as a natural frontier against Germanic tribes like the Marcomanni. They also built the Kinzig Valley Road.
[tour][de]
300:
300:[History][India] The Gupta period (c. 3rd–6th century CE), often called India's "Golden Age", was a time of immense cultural, scientific, and artistic advancement under emperors like Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II. Centered in Pataliputra, this era flourished in literature (Kalidasa), science (Aryabhata), and art, marking a revival of Hinduism alongside Buddhist art.
301:[Maths] The Surya Siddhanta: This text is particularly significant as it represents a sophisticated understanding of the cosmos. It includes calculations for planetary motions, eclipses, and the dimensions of the Earth. It is believed to have been composed between the 4th and 6th centuries CE. It was later expanded upon by prominent astronomers like Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, and Bhaskara I.
301:[Delhi] The Iron Pillar is located within the Qutub complex in Mehrauli, Delhi, India, and is not part of the Qutub Minar structure itself. It predates the Qutub Minar by several centuries and is known for its resistance to rust. The pillar was originally erected by Chandragupta II in the 4th or 5th century CE. Location: The Iron Pillar is situated in the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque courtyard, part of the larger Qutub complex. Composition: The pillar is primarily made of wrought iron and contains a high percentage of phosphorus. Rust Resistance: Despite being exposed to the elements for over 1600 years, it has largely resisted rust due to its unique composition and the formation of a protective layer on its surface. Historical Significance: An inscription on the pillar indicates it was originally erected in honor of the Hindu god Vishnu. It also mentions King Chandra, believed to be Chandragupta II. Dimensions: The pillar is 7.21 meters (23 feet 8 inches) high and has a diameter of 41 centimeters (16 inches). Weight: It weighs over 6 tons.
320:The Gupta period in India, roughly spanning from 320 CE to 550 CE, is often referred to as the "Golden Age" of India due to significant advancements in arts, science, literature, and philosophy. The empire, founded by Sri Gupta, reached its peak under rulers like Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II.
320:[India] Golden Age: The Gupta period is celebrated for its cultural and intellectual achievements, marking a high point in classical Indian civilization. Political Structure: The Gupta Empire was a centralized monarchy with a complex administration, including regional governors, and utilized matrimonial alliances for diplomacy. Economic Prosperity: Trade, both internal and external, flourished during this period. Agriculture and industry also saw significant development. Cultural Contributions: The Gupta era witnessed advancements in Sanskrit literature, with notable works by Kalidasa, and significant philosophical and scientific texts. Scientific Advancements: Notable figures like Aryabhata (astronomy and mathematics) and Varahamihira (astrology and astronomy) made important contributions. Art and Architecture: Gupta art and architecture are exemplified by the Sarnath temple and the Ajanta cave murals, showcasing the classic Gupta style. Key Rulers: Sri Gupta founded the empire, Chandragupta I expanded it, Samudragupta consolidated power and expanded the empire further, and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) is known for his patronage of the arts and sciences. End of the Empire: The Gupta Empire eventually declined due to factors including economic challenges, loss of western territories, and invasions.
320:The emergence of the Siddhantas roughly coincides with the Gupta period in India, known for advancements in various fields, including science and mathematics. The texts also reflect the influence of Greek astronomy, introduced to India after Alexander the Great's campaigns.
321:The concept of a 7-day week originated in ancient Babylonia. The Babylonians divided the lunar cycle into weeks of seven days, influenced by the seven celestial bodies they observed: the Sun, Moon, and the five planets visible to the naked eye (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn). The idea of a week based on the number seven then spread to other cultures, including the Jews, who also incorporated a seven-day week with a day of rest (the Sabbath). Later, the Roman Empire adopted the seven-day week, and it eventually became the standard for the modern world, particularly after Emperor Constantine made Sunday a legal holiday in 321 CE.
323: Judaism. Jewish history is the history of the Jews, and their nation, religion and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions and cultures.Although Judaism as a religion first appears in Greek records during the Hellenistic period (323 BCE – 31 BCE) and the earliest mention of Israel is inscribed on the Merneptah Stele dated 1213–1203 BCE, religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as c. 1500 BCE.
326:[Tourism][China] Lush bamboo forests surround Datang Gong Tribute Tea Park, tucked within the foothills of Changxing. This county in eastern China, part of the wider Huzhou city area, was established during the Jin Empire more than 1,700 years ago. Needless to say, Changxing has an extensive cultural heritage, including in the realm of—you guessed it—tea. Datang Gong Tea House was said to be one of the first tea processing plants in China, and visitors to the site are treated to collections of historic objects and re-creations of tea-making machinery, as well as some warm pots of the reviving brew itself. (Jul 2026)
328:[Culture] The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 CE using the Nabataean alphabet, which refers to Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr as 'King of all the Arabs'. Herodotus refers to the Arabs in the Sinai, southern Palestine, and the frankincense region (Southern Arabia). Other Ancient-Greek historians like Agatharchides, Diodorus Siculus and Strabo mention Arabs living in Mesopotamia (along the Euphrates), in Egypt (the Sinai and the Red Sea), southern Jordan (the Nabataeans), the Syrian steppe and in eastern Arabia (the people of Gerrha).
335: Samudragupta's 45 years' reign marked the beginning of what is popularly referred to as the golden age of Indian history, a period where the arts and architecture flourished under the patronage of the Guptas.
--------------------------- The romans conversion to Christianity from Israel --------------------------------------
337 (May 22): Constantine died. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. Although he lived much of his life as a pagan, and later as a catechumen, he joined the Christian religion on his deathbed, being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia. As Jews began to establish an autonomous way of life and put down deep roots in Babylon — a place at the far end of the Roman Empire and insulated from a Rome in steep decline — a Roman general by the name of Constantine rose in the ranks. His conversion to Christianity would literally shake up the entire world.
337: [Travel][India] Faxian was born, also referred to as Fa-Hien, Fa-hsien and Sehi, was a Chinese Buddhist monk and translator who traveled by foot from China to India to acquire Buddhist texts.
344: [Travel] Kumārajīva was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha. Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest translators of Chinese Buddhism. According to Lu Cheng, Kumarajiva's translations are "unparalleled either in terms of translation technique or degree of fidelity".
350s: [Travel] Vasubandhu was an influential Indian Buddhist monk and scholar from Gandhara. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary on the Abhidharma, from the perspectives of the Sarvastivada and Sautrāntika schools.
350: Hypatia of Alexandria (or Hypatia) (born c. 350–370; died 415 AD) was a neoplatonist philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, then part of the Eastern Roman Empire. She was a prominent thinker in Alexandria where she taught philosophy and astronomy. Although preceded by Pandrosion, another Alexandrine female mathematician, she is the first female mathematician whose life is reasonably well recorded. "All formal dogmatic religions are fallacious and must never be accepted by self-respecting persons as final." - Hypatia
350: Hypatia of Alexandria (or Hypatia) (born c. 350–370; died 415 AD) was a neoplatonist philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, then part of the Eastern Roman Empire. She was a prominent thinker in Alexandria where she taught philosophy and astronomy. Although preceded by Pandrosion, another Alexandrine female mathematician, she is the first female mathematician whose life is reasonably well recorded. "All formal dogmatic religions are fallacious and must never be accepted by self-respecting persons as final." - Hypatia
354:Augustine was born in 354 in the municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in the Roman province of Numidia. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian; his father Patricius was a pagan who converted to Christianity on his deathbed. He had a brother named Navigius and a sister whose name is lost but is conventionally remembered as Perpetua.
371:At the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow citizen Romanianus, Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric, though it was above the financial means of his family. Despite the good warnings of his mother, as a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits. The need to gain their acceptance encouraged inexperienced boys like Augustine to seek or make up stories about sexual experiences. It was while he was a student in Carthage that he read Cicero's dialogue Hortensius (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression, enkindling in his heart the love of wisdom and a great thirst for truth. It started his interest in philosophy. Although raised Christian, Augustine became a Manichaean, much to his mother's chagrin.
371:At about the age of 17, Augustine began a relationship with a young woman in Carthage. Though his mother wanted him to marry a person of his class, the woman remained his lover. He was warned by his mother to avoid fornication (sex outside marriage), but Augustine persisted in the relationship for over fifteen years, and the woman gave birth to his son Adeodatus (372–388), which means "Gift from God", who was viewed as extremely intelligent by his contemporaries.
371:Augustine was, from the beginning, a brilliant student, with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek – his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was never eloquent with it. He did, however, become a master of Latin.
373:Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and 374. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric and remained there for the next nine years. Disturbed by unruly students in Carthage, he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practised, in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended faithfully all term, and then did not pay.
375:[history][geo] Geomorphology: A massive earthquake in 375 AD separated the rocky promontory from the mainland.Name Meaning: Derived from mone and emvasia, meaning "single entrance," referring to the narrow causeway connecting the island to the mainland.Foundation: Settled around 583 AD by local populations seeking an impregnable refuge.
380: reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya of Gupta empire at Saurashtra with Ujjain as his capital.
381: Bulgaria founded.
381: Bulgaria founded.
384:Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked by the imperial court at Milan to provide a rhetoric professor. Augustine won the job and headed north to take his position in Milan in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers.
385: Augustine ended his relationship with his lover in order to prepare to marry a teenage heiress. By the time he was able to marry her, however, he had already converted to Christianity and decided to become a Christian priest and the marriage did not happen.
391: Quintus Aurelius Memmius Eusebius Symmachus, (born c. 345—died 402, Ravenna [Italy]), Roman statesman, Roman consul (391-391), a brilliant orator and writer who was a leading opponent of Christianity.
4xx: Introduction of Christianity and Latin literacy in Ireland.
4xx: The English language was first written in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc runic alphabet, in use from the 5th century. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along with the proto-form of the language itself, by Anglo-Saxon settlers.
393:[Anthro][Culture] Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius I bans the pagan Olympic Games, effectively ending statesanctioned Greek religion.
4xx: The English language was first written in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc runic alphabet, in use from the 5th century. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along with the proto-form of the language itself, by Anglo-Saxon settlers.
5th century CE started on 1st Jan 401 AD.
4xx:The Quraysh gained prominence in Mecca, likely around the 5th century CE, establishing themselves as custodians of the Kaaba, a revered religious site.
4xx:period for Classical antiquity ended around the Mediterranean sea.
4xx:[Maths] Pre-Christian people (4xx-8xx aka Anglo-Saxons) along the Mediterranean threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. (randomness)
400:
400:[Tourism][APAC] Ancient Panjakent was formed in the 5th century AD (around 400–450 AD) during the Early Middle Ages (Late Antiquity) by the Sogdian civilization in Central Asia.
400:[Tourism][APAC] You're looking at the largest of the turquoise gems in a chain of mountain lakes called Haft Kul (Seven Lakes). Also known as The Seven Lakes or The Seven Beauties of Shing, these stepped lakes follow one after another, each set a bit higher in elevation. Our image features Marguzor, the largest of the lakes—and at just over 7,000 feet in elevation, the second-highest in the group. Fans of Fann Mountains trekking rave about the stark beauty of Marguzor, and indeed this alpine marvel is widely known as one of the top beauty spots in all of Tajikistan. The striking color of Marguzor is due to its depth, its glacial flour content, and its algae-free water. the Shing Valley is known for its 7 lakes, formed after an earthquake made a series of dams across the valley. Today, we explored the Seven Lakes (Haft Kul), one of Tajikistan’s most spectacular natural wonders, nestled in the western Fann Mountains. Stretching over about 14 km in the Shing Valley, each lake lies at a progressively higher elevation, connected by the Shing River. Their striking colours, ranging from deep sapphire and turquoise to emerald and violet, change throughout the day depending on sunlight, season, and mineral content. Surrounded by rugged limestone peaks rising above 4,000 metres, the lakes have long inspired local legends and are among the highlights of any journey through the Fann Mountains.
Mijgon (Lake #1): Sits at 1,600m and is known for its vibrant, changing colors, which range from emerald to dark blue depending on the sunlight.
Soja (Lake #2): Wedged deep between steep, shadowy cliffs.
Gushor (Lake #3): A narrow lake surrounded by alpine flora and rocky outcrops.
Nofin (Lake #4): The longest of the lakes, stretching over 2.5 km alongside a local dirt road and a popular village.
Khurdak (Lake #5): A smaller, picturesque body of water acting as a midpoint for trekkers.
Marguzor (Lake #6): The largest of the chain, boasting brilliant turquoise waters, ancient petroglyphs, and sweeping valley views.
Hazorchashma (Lake #7): The highest and final lake, fed by thousands of mountain springs, meaning "a thousand springs" in Tajik
The earthquakes and resulting landslides that formed the Seven Lakes (Haftkul) of the Shing Valley occurred during ancient geological times, rather than a recorded period of human history. Geologists classify these bodies of water as landslide-induced block lakes. Tectonic shifts in the seismically active Fann Mountains triggered massive collapses of the canyon walls. These events blocked the Shing River millions of years ago, creating a natural staircase of rock dams.
400:[Tourism][APAC] What appears to be a field of broken earth is the remains of Ancient Panjakent, a Silk Road city that thrived over a thousand years ago in what is now Tajikistan. The city was built largely from mudbrick, so its houses, streets, and defensive walls have gradually collapsed and weathered into low, rounded forms. Instead of standing monuments, the site preserves the city's layout at ground level, revealing dense neighborhoods and narrow corridors. The mountains in the background overlook the Zeravshan Valley, where bustling trade once flourished. Panjakent is important not for its dramatic ruins, but for the clear record it provides of an early Central Asian city. See less
400:A remote area of the Kazakh steppe, Mangystau is a region of contrasts, where desert colours and eroded shapes blend together. It has a variety of landscapes, including Caspian lowlands, wide plateaus, steep mountains, and hidden valleys. Kyzylkup may be the region's surreal star: It's a stunning swath of ancient chalk rock hills striped with red and white layers. Nicknamed 'Tiramisu' because it resembles the Italian dessert with its colorful slopes, Kyzylkup was once part of the Tethys Ocean, which left behind traces of minerals that give the hills their vibrant hues. It's not the most easily reached landscape in the world, but it's certainly one of the most spectacular.
The clay and sandstone landscape in our image has a nickname that, though whimsical, certainly fits: Fairytale Canyon. Officially called Skazka Canyon, this 450-acre area of deeply eroded ravines, ridges, and rocky spires, with its striking red, orange, and yellow formations, is one of Kyrgyzstan's most photographed natural wonders. Adding to its popularity is the relative ease of getting here—Skazka Canyon is on the south shore of Lake Issyk-Kul, the world's second-largest salt lake and one of the country's top tourist attractions. Campers on the lakeshore can leave their yurt, lace up a pair of sturdy hiking shoes, gain roughly 470 feet in elevation at the canyon's highest points, and enjoy sweeping water views.
Situated high in the Fann Mountains of western Tajikistan are a series of tarns that reward those who journey here with stunning alpine scenery. The Kulikalon Lakes consist of at least three main lakes, and sometimes more are added to the list, depending on seasonal snowmelt that creates additional pools of pristine water. The biggest of them all, Kul-i-Kalon, is the namesake of the entire group, and literally translates to 'Big Lake.' Trekkers here should keep their eye on the sky, as the site is an Important Bird Area, where the fluttering of solitary snipes, sulphur-bellied warblers, and white-winged grosbeaks fill the air.
401 (Jan 1):[History] Middle Ages start. Western history defines the period stretching from the 5th to the 15th century as the Middle Ages and many cities from this era can still be seen in Europe. - 18 Apr 2022
402: Iron pillar of Delhi was built at Udayagiri by Chandragupta Vikramaditya (also known as Chandragupta II).
402: Iron pillar of Delhi was built at Udayagiri by Chandragupta Vikramaditya (also known as Chandragupta II).
410:[Polity] The sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 left Romans in a deep state of shock, and many Romans saw it as punishment for abandoning traditional Roman religion in favor of Christianity. In response to these accusations, and in order to console Christians, Augustine wrote The City of God as an argument for the truth of Christianity over competing religions and philosophies. He argues that Christianity was not responsible for the Sack of Rome but instead responsible for Rome's success. Even if the earthly rule of the Empire was imperiled, it was the City of God that would ultimately triumph. Augustine's focus was Heaven, a theme of many Christian works of Late Antiquity. Despite Christianity's designation as the official religion of the Empire, Augustine declared its message to be spiritual rather than political. Christianity, he argued, should be concerned with the mystical, heavenly city, the New Jerusalem, rather than with earthly politics.
421:[EU] Venice was traditionally established on March 25, 421 AD, by mainland refugees fleeing barbarian invasions. These settlers sought safety in the marshy islands of the Venetian lagoon, building their foundations on wooden piles driven into the mud. Refugee Crisis: Waves of Germanic tribes, Huns (under Attila in 451–452), and Lombards (in 568) forced mainland Romans from cities like Aquileia and Padua into the relative safety of the lagoon. Survival Adaptation: Early inhabitants survived by fishing, harvesting salt, and trading via small boats in the shallow waters. Engineering Marvel: They stabilized the shifting mudflats by driving millions of wooden logs deep into the sand and silt, creating a rot-resistant sub-surface foundation for permanent stone structures. Venice is built across 118 small islands linked by canals and bridges. It is known for having no cars, the Grand Canal, and historic architecture. Larch Timber: Known for its high resin content, making it naturally water-resistant and highly durable.Oak Timber: Incredibly dense, strong, and highly resistant to decay and fungal attacks. Imported Logs: Millions of these logs were harvested from the forests of Croatia, Slovenia, and Montenegro, then floated down to Venice.
426:[Polity] An important contributor to the discussion concerning the proper relationship between Church and state was St. Augustine, who in The City of God, Book XIX, Chapter 17, examined the ideal relationship between the "earthly city" and the "city of God". In this work, Augustine posited that major points of overlap were to be found between the "earthly city" and the "city of God", especially as people need to live together and get along on earth. Thus, Augustine held, opposite to the separation of church and state, that it was the work of the "temporal city" to make it possible for a "heavenly city" to be established on earth.
426:[Polity] Augustine of Hippo (/ɔːˈɡʌstɪn/ aw-GUST-in, US also /ˈɔːɡəstiːn/ AW-gə-steen;[22] Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430)[23] was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings deeply influenced the development of Western philosophy and Western Christianity, and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church in the Patristic Period. His many important works include The City of God, On Christian Doctrine, and Confessions.
427:[Education] The first residential university of the world founded at Nalanda by the magnanimity of Emperor Kumaragupta in 427CE and sustained by the conscientiousness of the learned monks and teachers, flourished for over 800 years till the end in 12th century CE. It is believed to possess 2,000 teachers and 10,000 students. Pali Buddhist Literature , too, has ample references to Nalanda, which used to be visited by Lord Buddha. During the days of Mahavira and Buddha,Nalanda was apparently a very prosperous temple city, a great place of pilgrimage and the site of a celebrated university.
427:[Education] The first residential university of the world founded at Nalanda by the magnanimity of Emperor Kumaragupta in 427CE and sustained by the conscientiousness of the learned monks and teachers, flourished for over 800 years till the end in 12th century CE. It is believed to possess 2,000 teachers and 10,000 students. Pali Buddhist Literature , too, has ample references to Nalanda, which used to be visited by Lord Buddha. During the days of Mahavira and Buddha,Nalanda was apparently a very prosperous temple city, a great place of pilgrimage and the site of a celebrated university.
450:[History][India] Around 450 AD, India was largely dominated by the Gupta Empire, with Skandagupta as the last great emperor facing significant Huna (White Hun) invasions from the northwest, a conflict that heavily taxed the empire's resources. This period also saw the flourishing of trade, including the use of the first known Kannada inscription around the same year, and in South India, the Chera kingdom continued its long-standing maritime trade with West Asia and Southeast Asia.
453:Attila (/əˈtɪlə/ ə-TIL-ə or /ˈætɪlə/ AT-il-ə; c. 406 – 453), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in early 453. He was also the leader of an empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Gepids, among others, in Central and Eastern Europe.
458:[History][India] Around 450 AD, India experienced invasions by the Hunas (Huns), a group of nomadic people from Central Asia. These invasions initially took place in the Gupta Empire's northwest, led by groups like the Hephthalites. Though the Gupta emperor Skandagupta successfully repelled some of these attacks, such as in a significant battle around 458 AD, the repeated invasions ultimately destabilized and contributed to the decline of the Gupta Empire.
475:Hunas or Huna (Middle Brahmi script: Hūṇā) was the name given by the ancient Indians to a group of Central Asian tribes who, via the Khyber Pass, entered the Indian subcontinent at the end of the 5th or early 6th century. The Hunas occupied areas as far south as Eran and Kausambi, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire.
475:Many universities flourished in ancient India, including the world-famous Takshashila and Nalanda University, Vallabhi, Odantapuri, Nagarjunakonda, Sharada Peeth, etc. Ans. Takshashila University was destroyed by the Huns in the 5th century CE.
-------------------------- European Middle Ages started for 1024 years (476-1500) -------------------------
Early Middle Ages: Roughly 500 CE to 1000 CE (following the collapse of Rome).
High Middle Ages: Roughly 1000 CE to 1300 CE (marked by growth and the rise of castles and cathedrals).
Late Middle Ages: Roughly 1300 CE to 1500 CE (marked by crises like the Black Death and the transition to the modern world).
Explore specific events (e.g., the Crusades, the Black Death)
Learn about daily life (e.g., knights, peasants, feudalism)
Compare regions (e.g., how the medieval period differed in Europe versus other parts of the world)
476: the Western Roman Empire fell. the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other formal uses.
400:[history] The medieval period, or Middle Ages, generally refers to the time in European history from the 5th century to the late 15th century, roughly spanning the years 476 CE to 1500 CE. A period of 1024 years. Fall of Rome: The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 AD when the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, lost his power to the Germanic general Odoacer.Sack of Rome: Armies sacked the city of Rome twice during this era—first by the Visigoths under Alaric in 410 AD, and later by the Vandals in 455 AD.Tribal Migrations: Germanic groups like the Franks, Goths, and Vandals moved across Europe and built their own new kingdoms.Attila the Hun: Attila led the fierce Huns on destructive raids into the Roman Empire during the middle of the century before his death in 453 AD.Cultural and Religious ShiftsGrowth of the Church: As secular governments broke down, the Christian church gained more power and organization.Conversion of Clovis: The Frankish King Clovis converted to Christianity in 496 AD, which helped shape the future of Western Europe.St. Augustine: The famous Christian writer St. Augustine wrote The City of God during the early part of this century. Famous leaders like Attila the Hun
476:[Maths] The earliest developments of trigonometry, including the sine function, are found in the Siddhantas, which defined the sine as the relationship between half an angle and half a chord. Aryabhata, around 476-550 AD, collected and expanded upon these ideas in his work, the Aryabhatiya.
486: the oldest country in Europe, as a nation, with a continual reign is France starting with Clovis (1st Christian King in our Era) in 486, founder of the Merovingians lineage (and his grandpa Merové).
5xx:
500:[Space] Polaris began to serve as the North Star around 500 AD and will continue to be the North Star for several more centuries.
5xx:
500:[Space] Polaris began to serve as the North Star around 500 AD and will continue to be the North Star for several more centuries.
500: With the end of ancient era, Early era of Music starts. Medieval period of Music.
500:[crime] Medieval to Early Modern Era (500 CE – 1700s): Mercenaries and Feudal Enforcers - Context: Feudal lords, monarchs, and merchant princes maintained personal guards, ninja clans in feudal Japan, or groups like the Nizari Ismailis (Hashashins, origin of the word "assassin") in the 11th–13th centuries. While often operating on ideological or loyalist grounds, financial patronage and rewards for eliminating regional rivals blurred the line into modern contract killing.
500s:[tour][de] The Black Forest in southwest Germany - Alemanni colonization: Large-scale settlement began around the 6th to 10th centuries as the Alemanni tribe cleared the dense valleys and higher elevations. Monasteries and trade: Medieval monasteries and noblemen drove further land clearance, establishing villages, glassmaking, and ironworking supported by charcoal production.
500s:[tour][greece] Monemvasia is a medieval fortress town on a massive rock off the east coast of the Peloponnese in Greece, founded in the 6th century by refugees fleeing Slavic invasions.
6th century CE started on 1st Jan 501 AD.
501:[history] The Ellora Caves complex dates from approximately the 6th to the 11th centuries CE, with specific periods of excavation varying for different religions. The Buddhist caves were created between the 6th and 8th centuries, the Hindu caves between the 7th and 10th centuries, and the Jain caves from the 9th to 12th centuries. The Buddhist caves (Caves 1-12) were excavated between the 6th and 8th centuries.
501:The Buddhist caves (Caves 1-12) were excavated between the 6th and 8th centuries.
525: Dionysius Exiguus was known to use nulla (or Null, in lieu of zero)alongside Roman numerals in 525.
528: Battle of Sondani - The defeat of the Huna emperor Mihirakula by King Yashodharman at Sondani in 528 CE (early 20th century illustration). Final defeat and elimination of the Alchon Huns in India. Hun or Huna is a major ancient clan of the Gujjar community of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. They are off-shots of Parmar Gurjars. Hun Gujjars are primarily Hindu, while some are Muslim in Muslim-majority areas especially in Kashmir and Pakistan.
530: The Order of St Benedict
550:[History][India] The Gupta Empire 320–550 CE declined by the mid-6th century due to relentless Huna invasions, weak successors after Skandagupta, internal rebellions, and economic strain from reduced trade. This combination of external pressure and internal fracturing led to the fragmentation of the empire into smaller regional kingdoms.
550: Fall of the Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) followed by the end of Ancient India and a beginning of Medieval India.
(CSE)
------------------------------------------- Ancient India - Ends --------------------------------------------------
570:The Iberian Peninsula, now encompassing Spain and Portugal, has a rich and complex history shaped by migrations, invasions, and cultural exchanges. Early inhabitants included hunter-gatherers and farmers, with the Iberians settling the eastern and southern coasts. Celtic migrations followed, influencing the north and center, while Phoenicians and Greeks established coastal settlements. The peninsula later became a Roman province (Hispania) and experienced periods of Visigothic and Moorish rule before the Christian Reconquista. (Al-Andalusi: Indicates someone from Al-Andalus (Iberian Peninsula))
570:The Quraysh were a powerful Arab tribe that historically controlled Mecca and the Kaaba before the rise of Islam. They were divided into several clans, with the Banu Hashim clan being particularly notable as the clan into which the Prophet Muhammad was born. The Quraysh played a significant role in the early Islamic period, both as opponents and later as converts to Islam.
570:[Islam] Muhammad was born approximately 571 years after Jesus, around 570 CE in Mecca. His early life occurred in a polytheistic society, amidst ongoing developments of Christianity. This timeline highlights the significant historical context surrounding the emergence of Islam.
570:In 570 CE, Mecca was primarily under the control of the Quraysh tribe, a powerful merchant group. They controlled the city, including the Kaaba, a significant religious site. While other tribes existed, the Quraysh were the dominant force in Mecca during that period.
570:In 570 CE, the city of Medina was not under the rule of a single individual or entity, but rather a collection of tribes and clans. The two main Arab tribes, the Aws and the Khazraj, had been engaged in conflict for over a century. There wasn't a unified political structure or a single ruler in Medina at that time.
570:Prophet Muhammad's life timeline begins with his birth in Mecca around 570 CE and concludes with his death (62YO) in Medina in 632 CE. 595 CE: Marries Khadijah; 610-622 CE: Preaches Islam in Mecca, facing opposition and persecution.
Key events include receiving his first revelation at age 40 in 610 CE, the Hijra (migration to Medina) in 622 CE, and his return to Mecca in 630 CE.
570:An inscription was found "in debris around the temple", which mentioned year 30 (of an unknown era) and a local ruler Mahārāja Udayasena (otherwise unknown), and the form of the letters indicated a post-Gupta date. If the era being used was the regnalHarsha, it would yield a date of 636 CE.[4] However, Neuss argues from the palaeography of the inscription that it was most likely written c. 570-590 CE. The inscription mentions the existence of some religious establishments which were existing there by this time. The Mundeshwari Devi Temple (IAST: Muṇḍeśvarī) is a Hindu temple, located at Ramgarh Village, 608 feet (185 m)[6] on the Mundeshwari Hills of Kaimur plateau near Son River, in the Bhojpuri region of Indian state of Bihar. It is an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) protected monument since 1915. (oldest temple in the world, Which temple is 10,000 years old in India?)
578: The Kongo Gumi Company, Ltd.
597:[Christian][Books][Space] The Gesta Pontificum Anglorum covers the period from the arrival of St Augustine in AD 597 until the time it was written.
600: Gupta empire reached its peak and started downfalling.
600:[History][India] The 6th century CE (501–600) marked the transition from Classical Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, dominated by the Byzantine Empire's attempt to reclaim the Roman West under Justinian I, the rise of Germanic kingdoms like the Franks, and severe plague outbreaks. It was a period of fragmentation, restructuring, and religious consolidation in Europe.
600: end of Ancient India, beginning of Medieval India
600:[History][World] The 7th century is the period from 601 through 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. The spread of Islam and the Muslim conquests began with the unification of Arabia by the Islamic prophet Muhammad starting in 622.
600:[Culture][India][History] The Gurjars are considered Suryavanshi/Raghuvanshi and ruled under the Pratihara dynasty in the 7th-10th centuries. The Jats are considered descendants of ancient tribal peoples of the Indus Valley and Punjab who migrated to Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh in the medieval period. Both these castes are considered part of the martial community (Ajgar - Ahir, Jat, Gurjar, Rajput), who are adept in both military and agriculture. Historically the Gurjars have been involved in animal husbandry and nomadic life, while the Jats are predominantly agricultural, although both are now in traditional occupations. Both Gurjars and Jats are divided into several gotras, and according to some historical evidence, about 70 Jat gotras became part of the Gurjar confederacy.
7th century CE started on 1st Jan 601 AD.
601:[GeoPolitics][Business] In the 7th century, the maritime empire of Srivijaya, based in Palembang, Sumatra, rose to power, and its influence expanded to the Malay Peninsula and Java. The empire gained effective control of two major choke points in maritime Southeast Asia: the Strait of Malacca and the Sunda Strait. By launching a series of conquests and raids on potential rival ports on both sides of the strait, Srivijaya ensured its economic and military domination in the region, which lasted about 700 years. Srivijaya gained great benefits from the lucrative spice trade, e.g. the tributary trade system with China, and trade with Indian and Arab merchants. The Strait of Malacca became an important maritime trade route between India and China. The importance of the Strait of Malacca in global trade networks continued well into later centuries with the rise of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century, the Johor Sultanate, the Straits Settlements, and the modern city-state of Singapore.
601:[history] Virupaksha Temple in Hampi traces its origins back to the 7th century and is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple has been continuously used for worship for over 1,300 years. Its tall gopuram (entrance tower), pillared halls, and intricate sculptures reflect the prosperity and artistic refinement of the Vijayanagara period. Despite invasions and decline, the temple remains a living monument and a focal point of Hampi’s heritage landscape.
601:[history] The Hindu caves (Caves 13-29), including the Kailasa Temple (Cave 16), were excavated between the 7th and 10th centuries. Kailasa Temple in Maharashtra is a part of the Ellora cave complex. The temple is all mysterious and shows an engineering and artistic marvel dating from the 8th century. It is carved from a single rock from top to bottom and is dedicated to Lord Shiva on Mount Kailash. It is estimated that over 200,000 tons of rock were removed to create this masterpiece but no one knows how it must have been done back then! Still a mystery!
601:[Maths] Bhaskara I, also known as Bhaskara Acharya or Bhaskara the First, was a 7th-century Indian mathematician and astronomer who made significant contributions to mathematics and astronomy, particularly in the areas of trigonometry and the Hindu decimal system. He was a follower of the mathematician Aryabhata and is considered one of the key figures in the development of Indian mathematics and astronomy.
601:Less is known about the origins of the Kingdom of Mewar. It was originally ruled by the Guhila dynasty. Guhadatta is considered the first ruler of the kingdom in the 7th century. In the early 8th century, it came under the sub ordinance of the regional Mori rulers. The kingdom under Bappa Rawal acquired control of Chittor in 728 after taking it away from its Mori overlords. Nagda was the capital of Mewar around this period. Bappa Rawal defeated an early Arab Caliphate invasion of India through a confederation with Gurjar-Pratihara ruler Nagabhata I. Bappa Rawals successors, namely Khuman II would continue to resist Arab incursions into the country.
602 (Apr 6): [Travel] Xuanzang, born Chen Hui / Chen Yi, also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator.
618: Tang Dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
618: Tang Dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
618:[Business] Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE):This period is considered a golden age for the Silk Road, characterized by flourishing trade and cultural exchange. Buddhism spread from India to China along the routes, and the dynasty saw significant foreign influences.
Key Rulers and Government
Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin): Rose to power, stabilized the empire, and expanded civil service exams.
[Women] Empress Wu Zetian: The first and only female emperor who ruled during a brief interruption in the dynasty.
Emperor Xuanzong: Presided over the height of Tang power before internal rebellions began the decline.
Culture and Society
Capital City: Chang'an was the largest and richest metropolis in the world, housing over one million residents.
The Silk Road: Trade routes thrived, bringing in foreign merchants, new religions, and diverse cultural fashions.
Arts and Literature: Legendary poets like Li Bai and Du Fu transformed Chinese poetry, and woodblock printing advanced the spread of knowledge.
Decline and Fall
An Lushan Rebellion: A massive 8th-century revolt that severely weakened the central government.
End of Rule: The dynasty finally collapsed in 907 CE, leading into the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
618:[China] Early Status: During the Tang Dynasty, the Wusong River was the major regional waterway, and the future Huangpu was just a minor tributary. Name origin: Named after Lu Shen, a Ming dynasty scholar whose family lived on this peninsula formed by a bend in the Huangpu River. (Lujiazui, Shanghai)
618:[History][India] Fourth Significant Battles in South Indian History: Battle of Pullalur (618–619 CE) - A key battle between the Chalukyas of Vatapi and the Pallavas.
618:[China] The Tang Dynasty was a powerful imperial dynasty in China that ruled from 618 to 907 CE, with a brief interruption. It was founded by Emperor Gaozu (Li Yuan) and is widely celebrated as a golden age of Chinese civilization, cosmopolitan culture, and economic prosperity.
622:[Islam] 622 CE: Migrates to Medina (formerly Yathrib) with his followers, marking the start of the Islamic calendar (Hijra).
622:Prophet Muhammad is buried in the Prophet's Mosque (Al-Masjid an-Nabawi) in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Specifically, his tomb is located within the "Sacred Chamber" or "Noble Chamber" adjacent to the Rawdah (the area between his pulpit and his house). This chamber also contains the graves of his close companions, Abu Bakr and Umar. The chamber is covered by the Green Dome, a prominent feature of the mosque.
622:[Military] The rise of Islam began when Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina in an event known as the Hijra. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.
624:A period of conflict ensued, starting with the Battle of Badr in 624 CE and culminating in the Muslim conquest of Mecca in 630 CE.
629: Chinese travellor Huen Tsang, visited India during the reign of Harshvardhana mentioned about Kumbh Mela in his literary works.
630:The Quraysh tribe's rule in Mecca spanned roughly from the 5th century CE until the Islamic conquest of Mecca in 630 CE. This period saw the Quraysh controlling the city and its surrounding trade routes, with their power largely based on their guardianship of the Kaaba.
630:[Military] The Early Muslim Conquests started by Muhammad (present-day Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, UAE, Qatar and Bahrain) in 630s from to 820s. Reached to Sindh (present-day Pakistan) around 705-714. Tunisia, Libya and the northern Niger were last to acceded into Arab conquests around 717 to 720.
632: Bulgaria founded.
632: Bulgaria founded.
632:[Religion][Islam] The Islamic Conquests (7th–8th Century CE) Key Context: Following the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, Islamic forces rapidly expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula Significance: The Islamic conquests were a series of military campaigns that spread the influence of Islam and established one of the largest empires in history. Under the leadership of the Rashidun Caliphs and later the Umayyad Caliphate, Muslim armies captured vast territories, including Persia, Byzantine lands, North Africa, and Spain. Why It’s Famous: The expansion of Islam had a lasting cultural, religious, and political impact on three continents. Muslim rule introduced advances in science, medicine, architecture, and philosophy, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age. Major Consequences: Cultural Fusion: Islamic rule blended Arab, Persian, Greek, and Indian influences, fostering intellectual achievements. Religious Spread: Islam became the dominant religion across the Middle East and North Africa. Trade Networks: The conquests connected regions, expanding trade across the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and Silk Road. Long-Term Impact: The Islamic world played a critical role in preserving and advancing knowledge during Europe’s Dark Ages. Many modern nations in the Middle East and North Africa trace their cultural and religious heritage to the early Islamic period.
632:Muslim surnames are diverse and vary greatly across different cultures and regions. They can be based on lineage, profession, place of origin, or other factors. Some common examples include surnames derived from names like Muhammad, Ali, or Ahmad, or those indicating a profession like "Al-Baker" (the baker).
632:Based on Lineage: Muhammad/Mohammad (630s): A very common surname, reflecting the name of the Prophet. Ali: Another very common surname, particularly popular in Arab countries, associated with the Prophet's son-in-law (630s). Ahmad/Ahmed: A common surname derived from the name of the Prophet. Hussain: A common surname, often associated with the Prophet's grandson, Hussain (660s). Based on Profession: Al-Baker: Means "the baker". Haddad: Means "blacksmith". Attar: Means "perfume seller" or "pharmacist". Based on Place of Origin: Al-Masri: Means "the Egyptian". Baghdadi: Indicates someone from Baghdad. Al-Qurashi: Indicates someone from the Quraysh tribe. Al-Andalusi: Indicates someone from Al-Andalus (Iberian Peninsula). Other Common Surnames: Khan: A common title and surname, particularly in South Asia. Sheikh: A title of respect, often used as a surname. Sayed/Syed: A title of respect, often indicating descent from the Prophet. Mirza: A Persian title, often used as a surname. Regional Variations: It's important to note that the prevalence of specific surnames varies greatly by region. For example, surnames common in South Asia may be less common in the Middle East, and vice versa. Additionally, some surnames may be associated with specific Islamic sects or Sufi orders.
635: [Travel][India] Yijing, formerly romanized as I-ching or I-tsing, was a Tang-era Chinese Buddhist monk famed as a traveller and translator. His account of his travels is an important source for the history of the medieval kingdoms along the sea route between China and India, especially Srivijaya in Indonesia. He lived for 78 years and died on 713 (Feb 16).
637:Jerusalem was first conquered by Muslims under the Rashidun Caliphate after the Siege of Jerusalem.
642:[Education] In 642 AD, Alexandria was captured by an Arab army under the command of Amr ibn al-As. Several later Arabic sources describe the destruction of the Library of Alexandria by the order of Caliph Umar.
(CSE)
-------------------------------- (647 - 1757): Medieval India - Starts for 1,110 years ----------------------------
647:[History][India] Based on NCERT and UPSC trends, the early medieval period is generally considered to begin around 700–750 CE. Key events marking this transition from the ancient period include the death of Harshavardhan (647 CE), the rise of regional kingdoms (Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas), and the Arab conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim in 712 CE.
647: Harshavardhana died. Harsha was an Indian emperor who ruled North India from 606 to 648 from his capital Kannauj. He belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty.
647: [Book][History] History of India 600 B.C. to 185 B.C. by Dr. AK Chaturvedi
647:[History][India] Medieval India: This period is defined as the era between the end of the Vardhana dynasty (647 AD) and the beginning of British colonial rule in India, marked by the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Key Events: It includes the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, and the rise of various regional powers.
650:[FnB] Bananas as we know them began to be developed in Africa about 650 AD. There was a cross breeding of two varieties of wild bananas, the Musa Acuminata and the ...
661:[Culture] Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history, partly as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan Al-Basri.
661:The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE) was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates, establishing the first hereditary dynasty from its capital in Damascus. Founded by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan following the First Fitna, the empire expanded rapidly, reaching from Spain to India, becoming one of the largest unified states in history. The dynasty emerged after the death of the fourth caliph, Ali, ending the Rashidun era. The Caliphate expanded significantly, conquering North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus), Transoxiana, and parts of the Indian subcontinent.
664 (Feb 5): [Travel] 62YO Hiuen Tsang died at Yintai District, Tongchuan, China.
666:In the year 666 AD, minor skirmishes among European royals occurred, the Chinese sent advanced mechanical chariots to Japan, and a wife of Mohammed died. The dating system that people today use began when a Christian monk decided to make a dating system centered around the birth of Jesus Christ.
676: The author of Tarikh-i-Amroha states that Amroha was ruled by Bhardwaj Tagas between 676 and 1141.
676: Korean monarch establishes kingdom over north Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria.
690:[Culture][EU] Lochaber is a traditional region and historic lordship in the Scottish Highlands that was first mentioned in written records around 690 AD, though human settlement in the area dates back over 9,500 years. As a formal local government district, Lochaber was created on May 16, 1975, and later abolished on March 31, 1996. c. 690 AD: First recorded written mention of Lochaber.Late 1200s: Established as a recognized provincial lordship consisting of the parishes of Kilmallie and Kilmonivaig.May 16, 1975: Formed as a local government district within the Highland region.March 31, 1996: Abolished under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, transitioning into a committee area under the Highland Council.
676: Korean monarch establishes kingdom over north Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria.
690:[Culture][EU] Lochaber is a traditional region and historic lordship in the Scottish Highlands that was first mentioned in written records around 690 AD, though human settlement in the area dates back over 9,500 years. As a formal local government district, Lochaber was created on May 16, 1975, and later abolished on March 31, 1996. c. 690 AD: First recorded written mention of Lochaber.Late 1200s: Established as a recognized provincial lordship consisting of the parishes of Kilmallie and Kilmonivaig.May 16, 1975: Formed as a local government district within the Highland region.March 31, 1996: Abolished under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, transitioning into a committee area under the Highland Council.
690:[Tourism][EU] The phrase 'Eigg, Muck, and Rùm' rings a bit like a Scottish delicacy, à la rumbledethumps, cullen skink, or neeps and tatties. Indeed, the trio are a feast for the eyes from this beach in the Highlands. They're the three Small Isles visible from Camusdarach Beach, an outpost of soft, white sand in Scotland's rural Lochaber region. Set several hours' drive from big cities like Glasgow and Edinburgh, the site nonetheless sees plenty of summer visitors seeking vast views and a dip in the crystal-clear waters. A portion of these pilgrims are drawn by film fandom: Scenes from the acclaimed movie 'Local Hero' were shot on location at Camusdarach. See less
694:[History][India] Abu Muhammad al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ibn al-Hakam ibn Abi Aqil al-Thaqafi, known simply as al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, was a governor who served the Umayyad Caliphate. Born 1 June 661 AD, Taif, Saudi Arabia Died 714 AD (age 53 years), Wasit, Iraq Previous offices Umayyad Governor of Iraq (694 AD–714 AD), Wali of Hejaz (692 AD–694 AD) Niece Umm al-Hajjaj bint Muhammad Siblings Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi Parents Yusuf ibn Hakam al-Thaqafi, al-Fari'a bint Hammam ibn Urwa al-Thaqafi Nationality Umayyad
695:Narasimhavarman II, popularly known as Rajasimha and as Rajamalla, was a Pallava monarch who reigned from 695 CE to 728 CE. He is credited with the construction of the Shore Temple Complex, the Isvara and Mukunda Temples in Mamallapuram, the Talagirisvara Temple in Panamalai and the Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchi.
697:[EU] Autonomous Rule in Venice: Originally tied to the Byzantine Empire, the lagoon communities elected their first doge in 697 AD, moving toward full independence by the 9th century.Maritime Empire: Capitalizing on its unique aquatic geography, Venice evolved into the Republic of Venice, dominating Mediterranean trade routes and amassing immense wealth from spices, silk, and naval power.
700:
7xx: Jerusalem, developed into the religious and administrative center of the Kingdom of Judah. Today, It is considered a holy city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
7xx: Parsis began to settle in Surat in the 8th century.
7xx: The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century. The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Siege of Baghdad in 1258. During this time, Arab scholars made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during the Renaissance.
7xx: The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century. The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Siege of Baghdad in 1258. During this time, Arab scholars made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during the Renaissance.
7xx:[India][History] In the 8th century, India entered the early medieval period. Political power was split among strong regional kingdoms instead of one large empire. Key ruling dynasties included the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, the Palas in the east, and the Pratiharas in the north. This era also saw early Arab incursions into Sindh and a great rise in temple building. Rashtrakutas: Ruled large parts of the south and central Deccan from Manyakheta, famous for starting the rock-cut cave temples at Ellora.Palas: Controlled Bengal and Bihar, supporting Buddhist centers like the Odantapuri and Vikramashila universities.Pratiharas: Dominated western and northern India, acting as a strong defense against eastern Arab advances.Pallavas & Karkotas: The Pallavas built grand shore temples in the far south, while the Karkota Empire ruled Kashmir under powerful kings like Lalitaditya Muktapida.
Adi Shankara: The great philosopher traveled across the country to revive Advaita Vedanta and set up major monastic centers (mathas).Art and Architecture: Monumental stone architecture flourished, moving away from simple wooden structures to permanent rock-cut and structural marvels.Science and Math: Indian numerals and texts heavily influenced early Islamic and Arab astronomy and mathematics.
7xx:[India] Temple Towns and Regional Capitals: Post-8th century, economic growth centralized around large temple complexes (South India) and regional administrative capitals. (Medieval Urbanisation)
712:[India][History] Arab Incursion: General Muhammad bin Qasim led the Umayyad Caliphate to conquer Sindh in 712 CE. Further inland expansion into peninsular and northern India was successfully blocked by local rulers like the Chalukyas and Pratiharas.
726:[Tourism][EU] Pirin National Park, Bulgaria - Sapphire lakes numbering in the hundreds dot the rough-hewn landscape of Bulgaria’s oldest national park. Many of the lakes reflect the husky granite peaks of the Pirin Mountains—within the park more than 60 peaks exceed 8,500 feet in elevation. Even a brief hike here provides excellent exercise, as 90 per cent of the park is classified as steep terrain. Trails wind through ravines and valleys, across ridges, and among pristine forests, including stands of ancient trees. The country’s oldest coniferous tree is here, the 1,300-year-old (since Aug 2026) Baikushev's pine; it began its life right around the same time as the birth of the First Bulgarian Empire.
8th century CE started on 1st Jan 701 AD.
7xx:[UK][Geopolitics] 8th Century: The early rough line of the border followed earthworks like Offa's Dyke.1536: The modern boundary was fixed when the English-Welsh border was drawn to abolish the old marcher lordships and create new county lines.1972: The Local Government Act of 1972 confirmed the final administrative boundaries, including the status of Monmouthshire.
701:The Guhilas from the 8th century acknowledged the suzerainty of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. In the 10th century, Bharttripatta II became an independent ruler and broke ties with the Pratihara empire and assumed the title Maharajadhiraja. His successor Allata killed Devapala, the ruler of the Gurjara Pratihara at that time. (Kingdom of Mewar)
705:The oldest continually operating hotel in the world is Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan in Japan, established in 705 AD. It has been owned and operated by the same family for 52 generations. It was founded by Fujiwara Mahito, the son of an aide to Japan's 38th Emperor Tenji.
711:The origin of the name Gibraltar comes from the 8th-century Arabic name Jebel Tarik, meaning "Tarik's Mountain," named after the Moorish leader Tariq ibn Ziyad who landed on the rock in 711 AD, beginning the Muslim conquest of Iberia. Over time, the name was corrupted into Gibraltar. The area was recognized by the Phoenicians and Romans, who called the rock "Mons Calpe" as one of the Pillars of Hercules.
712:[History][India] the Arab conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim in 712 CE.a great push towards medieval india period. Sent by Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, governor of Iraq, with the support of Caliph Al-Walid I, to expand the Umayyad empire, secure trade routes, and punish local rulers. The Campaign (711-712 CE): Qasim marched from Shiraz through Makran, capturing Debal, Nirun, and Brahmanabad before defeating Dahir's army. In 712 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate's general, 17-year-old Muhammad bin Qasim, conquered the Sindh region (modern Pakistan), marking the first significant, permanent introduction of Muslim rule into the Indian subcontinent. Following a pretext of punishing piracy near Debal, Qasim defeated and killed the Hindu King Dahir near Aror. (CSE)
713:[History][India] The region became an Umayyad dependency, with Multan captured in 713, extending control to the borders of Kashmir. Administrative: Qasim introduced the Jizya tax (on non-Muslims) and adopted a policy of religious tolerance towards Hindus and Buddhists, allowing them to retain their faith and property. End of Campaign: After the death of Caliph Walid in 715, Qasim was recalled, arrested, and executed, though Arab rule in Sindh persisted.
718: Spain founded.
728:Narasimhavarman II, popularly known as Rajasimha and as Rajamalla, was a Pallava monarch who reigned from 695 CE to 728 CE. He is credited with the construction of the Shore Temple Complex, the Isvara and Mukunda Temples in Mamallapuram, the Talagirisvara Temple in Panamalai and the Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchi.
728:[history] A UNESCO Heritage Site, the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram has also left the world stunned with its incredible design. It was constructed around the 8th century during the reign of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman II. The temple is one of the earliest structural temples in South India and is an architectural wonder of a kind. Unlike earlier rock-cut sanctuaries, this temple was built with dressed stone blocks. A perfect example of Dravidian architecture set on the shores of the Bay of Bengal.
735: In Japan, the epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population. At least seven religious deities have been specifically dedicated to smallpox, such as the god Sopona in the Yoruba religion. In India, the Hindu goddess of smallpox, Sitala Mata, was worshiped in temples throughout the country
762:[Geography] Caliph Al-Mansur chose the site of Baghdad due to its strategic location on the Tigris River and what he perceived as its destiny. Baghdad was founded in 762 CE by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur as the new capital of the Islamic Empire. The city's construction was a significant undertaking, and its design, particularly the round city plan, is notable in urban planning history. The city was originally designed as a circular city, with a diameter of 2.7 kilometers. It featured four gates, a palace, a mosque, and residential areas. Baghdad rapidly grew into a major center of trade, culture, and learning, attracting scholars, merchants, and people from diverse backgrounds. Despite its initial prominence, Baghdad faced challenges, including political instability and Mongol invasions, which led to periods of decline. However, the city eventually regained its importance and became the capital of Iraq.
762:[Geography] Caliph Al-Mansur chose the site of Baghdad due to its strategic location on the Tigris River and what he perceived as its destiny. Baghdad was founded in 762 CE by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur as the new capital of the Islamic Empire. The city's construction was a significant undertaking, and its design, particularly the round city plan, is notable in urban planning history. The city was originally designed as a circular city, with a diameter of 2.7 kilometers. It featured four gates, a palace, a mosque, and residential areas. Baghdad rapidly grew into a major center of trade, culture, and learning, attracting scholars, merchants, and people from diverse backgrounds. Despite its initial prominence, Baghdad faced challenges, including political instability and Mongol invasions, which led to periods of decline. However, the city eventually regained its importance and became the capital of Iraq.
768: Serbia founded.
780s: Ecgberht was forced into exile in the 780s by King Beorhtric of Wessex and King Offa of Mercia, but he returned to Wessex in 802 and took the throne.
780: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was born. Algorithm
789 (Feb 5): Morocco founded.
790s: The Vikings explored the northern islands and coasts of the North Atlantic, ventured south to North Africa and east to Russia, Constantinople, and the Middle East. They raided and pillaged, but also engaged in trade, settled wide-ranging colonies, and acted as mercenaries. Vikings under Leif Ericson, heir to Erik the Red, reached North America and set up short-lived settlements in present-day L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, and Labrador, Canada.
789 (Feb 5): Morocco founded.
790s: The Vikings explored the northern islands and coasts of the North Atlantic, ventured south to North Africa and east to Russia, Constantinople, and the Middle East. They raided and pillaged, but also engaged in trade, settled wide-ranging colonies, and acted as mercenaries. Vikings under Leif Ericson, heir to Erik the Red, reached North America and set up short-lived settlements in present-day L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, and Labrador, Canada.
790s: Sometime around the end of the eighth century, monks took up residence in the caves, carving staircases and religious reliefs in the rocks. Externsteine is in a highly scenic setting, today drawing a lot of New Age followers. A chapel sits atop one of the pillars; it is reachable by footbridge.
793 to -11th Century CE (4/4: Norse Culture):[Anthro][Culture] The Norse pantheon (Odin, Thor, Loki) belonged to Germanic tribes, but reached its distinct, famous form during the maritime expansion of Scandinavia.
793:[Anthro][Culture] The Raid on Lindisfarne marks the official start of the Viking Age.
798: Viking's raid on the coast of Brega.
800s: Use of zero as a number by Indians.
800s:[Tourism][Indonesia] For centuries, the world's largest Buddhist temple was lost beneath deposits of volcanic ash and a tangle of jungle overgrowth. Beginning with its rediscovery in the 19th century, Borobudur Temple has undergone numerous restoration projects and today stands as a massive, and breathtaking, monument in Central Java. Constructed in the 9th century, the temple consists of nine platforms stacked as a step pyramid, which forms a mandala shape from above.
800s:[Tourism][Indonesia] This lush, quilted landscape of rice fields is a visual testament to the millennium-old subak irrigation system, which harmonizes farming with ecology and spiritual life. Since the 9th century, Bali's freshwater supply has been managed by local co-ops each centered around Hindu water temples. From lofty sources like Lake Batur—considered Bali's main freshwater source, located about 20 miles north of this farm in Ubud—water spills downhill through networks of weirs and waterways to soak the rice terraces from the highest to the lowest. Flow is directed on a schedule carefully planned by the co-ops, so rice fields may spend a given season either fertile, like the prosperous paddy to our right, or fallow, like the unsown area to our left.
800s:[India] The Seven Pagodas is a historic nickname for the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu, India, built during the 8th century AD by the Pallava dynasty under kings like Narasimhavarman II. Today, only the famous Shore Temple remains visible on land, while legend and marine studies suggest the others stand submerged. Builders: Carved and constructed by the Pallava dynasty kings in the 7th and 8th centuries.The Name: European sailors called the site the "Seven Pagodas" because of its tall, pyramid-shaped temple towers.Current Status: Only one structural Shore Temple remains standing on the coast, alongside monolithic rathas (chariots) and rock reliefs.
800s:[crime] c. 800 CE: Playing cards are invented in China and quickly spread across Asia, eventually reaching Europe by the late 14th century.
813: Horik I or Hårik (died 854) was a king of the Danes. He was co-ruler from 813, and sole king from c. 828 until his violent death in 854. (Vikings)
800: Vikings age starts. Ireland became homogeneously Gaelic in terms of society, culture and language. People lived in rural communities, and the only larger settlements were monastic towns of varying sizes. The monasteries played an important part in society, not just with regards to religious and cultural life, but also to economy and politics. The island was almost entirely Christian.800:[Food] Ethiopia is widely considered to be the epicentre of where coffee came from. If you've ever googled “coffee history”, you will have come across the famous story of how coffee was founded in Ethiopia by Kaldi, an Ethiopian goat herder, around 800 AD. He wandered over to his goats to see them acting very strangely.
800:Charlemagne (born April 2, 747? —died January 28, 814, Aachen, Austrasia [now in Germany]) was the king of the Franks (768–814), king of the Lombards (774–814), and first emperor (800–814) of the Romans and of what was later called the Holy Roman Empire. (Who was the father of the Holy Roman Empire?)
800:The end of the eighth century (700–799 AD) was marked by significant power shifts, including the rise of Charlemagne in Europe, the beginning of the Viking Age, and the consolidation of the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East. Key events included the 792–794 debate at Samye in Tibet and the strengthening of Offa in England. Key developments and events at the end of the 8th century (c. 790s–800): Europe (Carolingian Empire): Charlemagne expanded the Frankish Kingdom, initiating campaigns to become the dominant power in Western Europe, leading to his coronation as Emperor in 800. England: Offa, King of Mercia, solidified his power over southern England, building Offa's Dyke and asserting dominance. Viking Age Begins: Late in the 8th century, the first Scandinavian raids, such as Lindisfarne in 793, signaled the start of the Viking Age. Tibet & Buddhism: The Samye debate (792–794) concluded, establishing Indian Buddhism over Chinese Buddhism as the state religion, heavily influencing Tibetan politics. Abbasid Caliphate: The Islamic world saw the consolidation of the Abbasid dynasty, with Baghdad as a growing center of culture and power. Byzantine Empire: The Empire was active in the Mediterranean, facing challenges from both the Abbasid Caliphate and newly emerging Frankish power. The 8th century is generally considered the onset of the early medieval period in various regions, bridging the earlier, more chaotic post-Roman era with the stabilization of new kingdoms.
9th century CE started on 1st Jan 801 AD.
801: The term 'India' appeared in Old English as early the 9th century and reemerged in Modern English in the 17th century.
801: The Cyrillic alphabet owes its name to the 9th century Byzantine missionary St. Cyril, who, along with his brother, Methodius, created the first Slavic alphabet—the Glagolitic—in order to translate Greek religious text to Slavic. Cyrillic is not official, but is in common use as a legacy script. Among others, Cyrillic is the standard script for writing the following languages: Slavic languages: Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Rusyn, Serbo-Croatian (for Standard Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin), Ukrainian. In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, and Serbian, the Cyrillic script is also known as azbuka, derived from the old names of the first two letters of most Cyrillic alphabets (just as the term alphabet came from the first two Greek letters alpha and beta).
801:[history] The Jain caves (Caves 30-34) were excavated between the 9th and 12th centuries.
802:King Ecgberht, also spelled Egbert, or Ecbert?was the King of Wessex from 802 to 839. He is credited with laying the foundation for the political unification of England. Before his reign, England consisted of several smaller kingdoms, and Ecgberht established a more unified and powerful Wessex. He was the first monarch to establish stable rule over all of Anglo-Saxon England and was known as the eighth "bretwalda" (overlord) of Britain. (Vikings) (Historically, "pagan" was a term used by Christians to refer to people who did not worship the God of Abraham, essentially describing those who practiced non-Christian religions. )
807: Viking's raids on the coast of Connacht.
819:Transoxiana - Medieval Period: Ruled by various dynasties, including the Samanid Empire (819–999).
825: On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (originally, Hidab al-jabr wal-muqubala) written by Al-Khwarizmi of Persia, was principally responsible for spreading the Hindu–Arabic numeral system throughout the Middle East and Europe. It was translated into Latin as Algoritmi de numero Indorum. Al-Khwārizmī, rendered as (Latin) Algoritmi, led to the term "algorithm".
828:[EU] Several medieval chronicles narrate the translatio, the removal of Saint Mark's body (excluding the head) from Alexandria in Egypt by two Venetian merchants and its transfer to Venice in 828/829.[2] The Chronicon Venetum further recounts that the relics of Saint Mark were initially placed in a corner tower of the castrum, the fortified residence of the Doge and seat of government located on the site of the present Doge's Palace.[3] Doge Giustiniano Participazio (in office 827–829) subsequently stipulated in his will that his widow and his younger brother and successor Giovanni (in office 829–832) were to erect a church dedicated to Saint Mark wherein the relics would ultimately be housed. Giustiniano further specified that the new church was to be built between the castrum and the Church of Saint Theodore to the north. Construction of the new church may have actually been underway during Doge Giustiniano's lifetime and was completed by 836 when the relics of Saint Mark were transferred.
825: On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (originally, Hidab al-jabr wal-muqubala) written by Al-Khwarizmi of Persia, was principally responsible for spreading the Hindu–Arabic numeral system throughout the Middle East and Europe. It was translated into Latin as Algoritmi de numero Indorum. Al-Khwārizmī, rendered as (Latin) Algoritmi, led to the term "algorithm".
828:[EU] Several medieval chronicles narrate the translatio, the removal of Saint Mark's body (excluding the head) from Alexandria in Egypt by two Venetian merchants and its transfer to Venice in 828/829.[2] The Chronicon Venetum further recounts that the relics of Saint Mark were initially placed in a corner tower of the castrum, the fortified residence of the Doge and seat of government located on the site of the present Doge's Palace.[3] Doge Giustiniano Participazio (in office 827–829) subsequently stipulated in his will that his widow and his younger brother and successor Giovanni (in office 829–832) were to erect a church dedicated to Saint Mark wherein the relics would ultimately be housed. Giustiniano further specified that the new church was to be built between the castrum and the Church of Saint Theodore to the north. Construction of the new church may have actually been underway during Doge Giustiniano's lifetime and was completed by 836 when the relics of Saint Mark were transferred.
830: discovery of algebra by al-Khwarizmi.
839: King Ecgberht died in 839 and was succeeded by his son, Æthelwulf. His legacy lies in laying the groundwork for a unified England, a process that would continue for centuries.
843: England founded.
850: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi died.
850: Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 850 – 900 CE) was a renowned Mongol warlord and a direct ancestor of Genghis Khan as well as of the Barlas Mongols, the tribe of the Central Asian warlord Timur.
854: Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī born at Ray, Iran. He was a Persian polymath, physician, alchemist, philosopher, and important figure in the history of medicine. Philosophical era: Middle Ages.
857: Kandalur salai, a Military Academy is believed to have been established by Karunandadakkan (857-885 AD)
850: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi died.
850: Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 850 – 900 CE) was a renowned Mongol warlord and a direct ancestor of Genghis Khan as well as of the Barlas Mongols, the tribe of the Central Asian warlord Timur.
854: Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī born at Ray, Iran. He was a Persian polymath, physician, alchemist, philosopher, and important figure in the history of medicine. Philosophical era: Middle Ages.
857: Kandalur salai, a Military Academy is believed to have been established by Karunandadakkan (857-885 AD)
858:[Maths] Al-Battani, also known as Albategnius, was a renowned Arab astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and mathematician who lived from 858 to 929 AD. He is considered a major figure of the Islamic Golden Age and one of the most important astronomers of the medieval period. Al-Battani made significant contributions to astronomy, mathematics, and trigonometry, including improvements to the calculations of the solar year, the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the motion of the sun's apogee.
859: University of Al-Karaouine (or Al-Quaraouiyine): Located in Fes, Morocco, originally was a mosque founded by Fatima al-Fihri, a woman. Today it has It developed into one of the leading universities for natural sciences. He calculated the solar year with remarkable accuracy, finding it to be 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, and 24 seconds. This value is only a few minutes different from the current accepted value. Al-Battani's astronomical tables, particularly his Kitāb az-Zīj, were translated into Latin, and his work became highly influential in Europe. Al-Battani's discoveries and methods influenced later astronomers, including Nicolaus Copernicus.
859:[Education][Africa][Public] University of Al Quaraouiyine, Morocco founded.
872: Al-Farabi, known in the West as Alpharabius, was a renowned philosopher and jurist who wrote in the fields of political philosophy, metaphysics, ethics and logic. He was also a scientist, cosmologist, mathematician and music scholar.888:In 888, a brave leader named Odo of France became the King of the Franks. The Franks were a powerful group of people who lived in what is now France and parts of Germany. Being king meant Odo was the most important ruler in their land.
900: Mississippian culture, a culture of Native American mound-builders started from 900 till 1500. The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the Mississippi River Valley.
8xx:[India] If you're interested in other temples from that era, you might want to look into the Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, which has older elements dating to the 9th century, or the Brahmapureeswarar Temple in Thirukkuvalai, which also has Chola-era construction.
847:[tour][greece] Saracen pirates during the Middle Ages - Saracen pirates were Muslim raiders and seafarers from North Africa, Spain, and the Middle East who plundered the Christian coasts of the Mediterranean during the early and high Middle Ages. Origins of the Term: Europeans and Byzantines used the word "Saracen" as a general label for Muslim people, regardless of their specific ethnic background.Emirate of Bari: Established in Southern Italy in 847 CE after a force led by Kalfun captured the city, serving as a hub to ravage the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian coasts.Fraxinetum (La Garde-Freinet): A famous pirate stronghold set up on the coast of Provence, France, around 880 CE. From this mountain base, raiders attacked Alpine passes, targeted Roman pilgrims, and plundered local towns until they were expelled in 972 CE. Island Strongholds: Pirates operated from bases in Sicily, Crete, and the Balearic Islands to dominate Mediterranean shipping lanes. Slave Raiding: A primary goal of Saracen maritime attacks was capturing Christian prisoners to sell into slave markets across the Muslim world.Encastlement: The constant threat of coastal raids forced southern European populations to abandon open shorelines and move inland to fortified hilltop villages, a process known as encastlement.Countermeasures: Their attacks prompted major defensive projects in Europe, such as Pope Leo IV building the Leonine Wall around Vatican Hill following raids near Rome.
10th century CE started on 1st Jan 901 AD.
9xx: Norse explorers began venturing into the Arctic in the 10th century.
902: 1st Russian naval expeditions against Crete. Rōs (now, Russia) served in naval expeditions against Crete in 902 and 949, and land campaigns in Syria in 955.
930: Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The first Varangians in Byzantine Service, according to Benedikz and Blondal, were Christianized Russians (Rōs, for both Scandinavians and Slavs), who served with Dalmatians in the Great Company as marines in the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (ca. 930-950).
933: [Travel] Built originally in 933, a main tower and shield walls were added to Spiez Castle in the 12th century. Additional renovations expanded the size of the castle throughout the High Middle Ages and up to the 18th century. Experts believe the castle was the site of medieval jousting competitions, based on 13th-century graffiti scribbled into the walls by competing knights. This microcosm of Swiss architectural history is impressive by itself, but just as splendid is the setting: Spiez Castle is built on the shores of Lake Thun, with sweeping views across the water to the Bernese Alps. Surrounding the castle in a green embrace are stands of trees, manicured gardens, and rambling vineyards.
930: Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The first Varangians in Byzantine Service, according to Benedikz and Blondal, were Christianized Russians (Rōs, for both Scandinavians and Slavs), who served with Dalmatians in the Great Company as marines in the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (ca. 930-950).
933: [Travel] Built originally in 933, a main tower and shield walls were added to Spiez Castle in the 12th century. Additional renovations expanded the size of the castle throughout the High Middle Ages and up to the 18th century. Experts believe the castle was the site of medieval jousting competitions, based on 13th-century graffiti scribbled into the walls by competing knights. This microcosm of Swiss architectural history is impressive by itself, but just as splendid is the setting: Spiez Castle is built on the shores of Lake Thun, with sweeping views across the water to the Bernese Alps. Surrounding the castle in a green embrace are stands of trees, manicured gardens, and rambling vineyards.
940:Hawaii originated from deep-sea volcanic activity over a mantle hotspot and was first settled by Polynesian voyagers from the Marquesas and Tahiti between 940 and 1200 AD. Hotspot formation: Built by a stationary magma plume beneath the shifting Pacific Tectonic Plate.Island chain age: Older, extinct volcanoes sit to the northwest, while active volcanoes like Kīlauea sit to the southeast on the Big Island. First arrivals: Polynesians navigated thousands of miles in double-hull canoes using star paths to reach the archipelago.Name root: The name Hawaiʻi likely comes from Hawaiki, the legendary ancestral homeland of Polynesian peoples.
949: 2nd Russian naval expeditions against Crete.
950:[env] The Medieval Warm Period (950–1250 CE) was a time of warmer weather, mostly in the North Atlantic region and parts of Europe. It caused good crops and growth, but was a regional climate shift, not a global heat wave. Vikings farmed in Greenland; Europe saw population growth.
950:[history] Khajuraho Group of Monuments were constructed between 950 and 1050 CE by the Chandela dynasty. These temples are noted for their extraordinary and exquisite sculptures and erotic carvings. Of the original 85 temples, about 25 survive and can be explored today. These temples are adorned with thousands of stone carvings depicting deities, celestial beings and dancers. Far from being purely sensual, these carvings celebrate the divine connection between the physical and spiritual worlds.
955: Russian land campaigns in Syria.
960: Song Dynasty of China till 1279.
955: Russian land campaigns in Syria.
960: Song Dynasty of China till 1279.
962:The title lapsed in 924, but was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor by Pope John XII, as Charlemagne's and the Carolingian Empire's successor. The title of Emperor was again revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned by Pope John XII, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne and thus establishing the Holy Roman Empire. (The First Reich)
964: This 'nebulous smear'—as the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi described the Andromeda galaxy around the year 964—is the most distant object most people can see from Earth with the naked eye.
973 (Sep 5): Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Bīrūnī, known as Al-Biruni in English born at Khwarezm, was a Khwarezmian Iranian Muslim scholar and polymath.
973 (Sep 5): Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Bīrūnī, known as Al-Biruni in English born at Khwarezm, was a Khwarezmian Iranian Muslim scholar and polymath.
975:[Botany][FnB][Food] Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) originated in India. They have been cultivated there for at least 3,000 years. A large genetic diversity of cucumbers is found in India, along with its closest wild relative, Cucumis hystrix. The cucumber was likely introduced to other parts of Europe, including Greece and Rome, by the Greeks and Romans.
976: Basil II (from 976 to 1025)
977:[APAC][SEAs] One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo is the 977 AD letter to the Chinese emperor from the ruler of Boni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo. The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war.
980 (Aug 21): Ibn Sina of Persia or Avicenna. was born at Bukhara Region, Uzbekistan. He was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age. Of the 450 works he is known to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.
980: Grand Prince Volodimer ruled Kievan Rus between 980 and 1015.
980 (Aug 21): Ibn Sina of Persia or Avicenna. was born at Bukhara Region, Uzbekistan. He was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age. Of the 450 works he is known to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.
980: Grand Prince Volodimer ruled Kievan Rus between 980 and 1015.
984:[Research][Chemistry] Geometrical optics, or ray optics, describes the propagation of light in terms of "rays" which travel in straight lines, and whose paths are governed by the laws of reflection and refraction at interfaces between different media. These laws were discovered empirically as far back as 984 AD and have been used in the design of optical components and instruments from then until the present day.
998:[Who] Al-Biruni (973 - 1050) spent the first twenty-five years of his life in Khwarezm where he studied Islamic jurisprudence, theology, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy and dabbled not only in the field of physics, but also in those of most of the other sciences.[citation needed] The Iranian Khwarezmian language, which was Biruni's mother tongue, survived for several centuries after Islam until the Turkification of the region – at least some of the culture of ancient Khwarezm endured – for it is hard to imagine that the commanding figure of Biruni, a repository of so much knowledge, should have appeared in a cultural vacuum. He was sympathetic to the Afrighids, who were overthrown by the rival dynasty of Ma'munids in 995. He left his homeland for Bukhara, then under the Samanid ruler Mansur II the son of Nuh II. He corresponded with Avicenna, and there are extant exchanges of views between these two scholars.
10xx: One of the most interesting episodes in Byzantine military history and in medieval English history is the Anglo-Saxon participation and service in the Varangian Guards regiment from the late 11th to the early 13th century. In the 11th century, as a result of crises suffered by the Byzantine state (feudalization of the armed forces, civil-military conflict in the government, the loss of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks, the loss of Southern Italy to the Normans, etc.) the Byzantine army became increasingly dependent upon mercenary forces.
10xx: One of the most interesting episodes in Byzantine military history and in medieval English history is the Anglo-Saxon participation and service in the Varangian Guards regiment from the late 11th to the early 13th century. In the 11th century, as a result of crises suffered by the Byzantine state (feudalization of the armed forces, civil-military conflict in the government, the loss of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks, the loss of Southern Italy to the Normans, etc.) the Byzantine army became increasingly dependent upon mercenary forces.
1000s:[Medicine] The period between 800 BCE and 1000CE (~2000 years) was the Golden Age of Indian medicines. This was the time when all the important books on Ayurveda were produced and circulated throughout the world. Ayurveda not only gained popularity among the Indians but the information on the traditional systems of Indian medicine became popular amongst Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese, Roman, Persians, Arabs, and Tibetans who travelled to India during that time. They studied Ayurveda in India and the carried this valuable knowledge to their respective countries. Between 1000 CE and 1200 CE, physicians such as Avicenna and Razes translated a great part of the Ayurvedic knowledge into Arabic. This vast 1,800-year timeframe covers the rise and fall of major global civilizations:Classical Antiquity: The rise of Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, and the Han Dynasty in China.Axial Age: The birth of major world philosophies and religions, including Buddhism, Confucianism, and Greek philosophy.The Middle Ages: The collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the golden age of the Islamic Caliphates, and the rise of the Byzantine Empire.
1000s:[biz][mntngg] Pathan traders from Peshawar (historically part of the broader Pashtun merchant networks) have played a pivotal role in trans-continental commerce for centuries, leveraging Peshawar's strategic position at the eastern mouth of the Khyber Pass. Acting as a gateway between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, these merchants shaped regional economics, architecture, and cultural exchange. The Historical Epicenter: Qissa Khwani BazaarFor generations, the heartbeat of Peshawari trade was the Qissa Khwani Bazaar ("Market of the Storytellers").The Trading Hub: Merchants from Kabul, Bukhara, Samarkand, and Delhi gathered here to trade silk, rugs, spices, and dry fruits.The Narrative Tradition: It earned its name because traveling traders would camp at night in the bustling inns (serais), drinking green qahwa and exchanging stories of their treacherous journeys across high mountain passes.Global Reach & Trade NetworksPathan traders were highly nomadic and resilient, taking vast risks to navigate politically volatile terrains:The Silk Road Connection: They established trade outposts deep into the Himalayas. Notably, the historic Gartang Gali cliff-side hanging stairway in Uttarakhand, India, was originally constructed by Pathan traders from Peshawar to facilitate a safe Silk Road route between Tibet and India.The Sethi Merchants: Wealthy 19th-century Peshawari traders, such as the Sethi family, built highly successful international financial networks running from Shanghai to St. Petersburg. They constructed the famous Sethi Mohallah in Peshawar, showcasing stunning Central Asian woodcarving architecture funded by their immense trading wealth.Financing Empires: These diverse merchant guilds and moneylenders wielded incredible political leverage, frequently financing the military campaigns of the Durrani Empire and handling cross-border banking. Traditional CommoditiesHistorically and in modern commerce, Pathan traders from the region are heavily associated with specific luxury and cultural goods:Footwear: The iconic, handmade leather Peshawari Chappal.Produce: Afghan and regional dry fruits, saffron, and almonds.Crafts: Intricately embroidered Pashtun shawls (chadars), tribal jewelry, and brassware.Arms Production: While some traditional Pathans historically preferred politics or military pursuits over general retail, the manufacture and trade of firearms became a highly specialized industry in nearby areas like Darra Adam Khel.Are you researching a specific time period (such as the British Raj or the Silk Road era), or are you looking for information on modern trading companies from Peshawar?
1000s:[biz][mktg] Pathan (Pashtun) traders and migrants have a long history in the Indian subcontinent, moving across the region over many centuries for trade, military service, and settlement.Historical Timeline11th–12th Century: Large-scale Pashtun migration began into the Indian subcontinent alongside the establishment of various Muslim dynasties and empires. Pashtuns arrived as traders, soldiers, administrators, and diplomats.13th–16th Century: Pathan dynasties, including the Khaljis and Lodhis, rose to power and ruled the Delhi Sultanate before being succeeded by the Mughal Empire. Sher Shah Suri founded the Sur Empire in the 16th century.18th Century (1748–1767): Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali launched repeated military and economic campaigns into India, cementing Pashtun regional influence.19th Century: Afghan and Pashtun traders (such as the Kabuli traders in Gujarat and caravan merchants) traveled overland carrying horses, dry fruits, carpets, and saffron to regions like Rajputana, the Deccan, and Bombay.Turn of the 19th to 20th Century: Migration shifted toward urban labor, dock work, guarding, and traditional money-lending in commercial hubs like Bombay and Hyderabad.1947: Following the partition of India, a segment of the settled Pathan community migrated to Pakistan, while others integrated into local Urdu-speaking populations across northern and central India.Modern Era (2010–Present): Contemporary commercial entities bearing the name, such as Pathan Traders in Karnataka (established 2010), operate as modern agricultural exporters.Would you like to focus on a specific region (such as Gujarat, Bombay, or Hyderabad) or a particular century of Pathan migration and trade history?
10xx: चौरपंचाशिका is a set of 50 verses written by a Kashmiri Pandit Bilhana (or Vilhana). It is also known as Bilhana Panchasika and Sasikalapanchasika.
1000:[Anthro][Culture] Christianization of Scandinavia begins. The old gods are systematically abandoned.
1000: [India] Reign of Tomars and Chahvans in Delhi. Prithviraj and Samyukta1000:Settlements like Tabo, Dhankar, Kaza, and Rangrik, located on the banks of the Spiti River, have existed for at least 1000 years, indicating the Spiti river's long-standing presence and importance to the region. Spiti river is a 225 kilometres (140 mi) long tributary of Sutlej river. The Spiti River nurtures the beautiful valleys of Lahaul-Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh.
1000:The Thule people, ancestors of the modern Inuit, emerged in western Alaska and began their eastward expansion across the Arctic. 1000 onwards, the Thule people displaced the related Dorset culture, establishing themselves across the Arctic, including Greenland. The Dorset culture, a Paleo-Eskimo culture, coexisted with or was displaced by the Thule people in some areas (1000-1500). Post 1000, The Thule culture, with its advanced hunting techniques (including whaling) and transportation methods (dog sledges and skin boats), laid the foundation for the modern Inuit presence across the Arctic.
1000:The origin of the name Saurashtra is rooted in ancient Sanskrit, possibly meaning "good country" or "land of the sun". It refers to a region in Gujarat, India, also known as Kathiawad. Historically, it was a region of numerous small kingdoms that eventually united. The Saurashtra people, known for their silk weaving, migrated from this region to South India, particularly Tamil Nadu, preserving their language and culture.
1000:The Somnath temple's origins are steeped in Hindu mythology and legend, with various accounts suggesting it was first built by the Moon God, Soma, and later rebuilt multiple times by different rulers. The temple, one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, is known for its historical significance and repeated destruction and reconstruction. The present structure was reconstructed in 1951, under the guidance of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
1000:The surname Patel is of Indian origin, specifically from the state of Gujarat. It is derived from the Gujarati word "patel," which means "village headman" or "land chief". Historically, it denoted individuals responsible for managing village affairs, collecting land revenue, and maintaining records. The surname is closely associated with the Patidar community.
1000:[Delhi] What stood before us was not merely an old structure, but a 1,100-year-old hydraulic monument, a surviving relic of Delhi's early medieval past. The Anangpur Dam, resting in austere silence amid the Aravallis. The site is believed to have been built in the 10th century CE, when the Tomars were the lords of the region.
The Gandhi surname originates from the Gujarati word "gandhak," meaning "perfume seller." The name was adopted by the family of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who later became known as Mahatma Gandhi, despite not being related to perfume sellers, according to Wikipedia. His ancestors were merchants and his father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi, was a court official in Porbandar. While the Gandhi surname is most famously associated with Mahatma Gandhi, it was also adopted by Feroze Gandhi, who married into the Nehru-Gandhi family, though they were not biologically related, says Wikipedia.
The surname Ambani is of Gujarati origin, specifically associated with the Vaishnav Baniya (trading community) from Chorwad, Gujarat, India. They are known to be devotees of Lord Shrinathji, a popular Krishna shrine. The Ambani family, including prominent figures like Dhirubhai Ambani, Mukesh Ambani, and Anil Ambani, belong to this community. The family's origins are traced back to the village of Chorwad near Junagadh, Gujarat.
The surname Mehta originates from India and is derived from the Sanskrit word "Mahattara," meaning "great" or "chief." It was historically used as a title for individuals in positions of authority, such as village headmen or accountants. The name is primarily found among Gujarati communities but is also present in other Indian religious and social groups.
The surname Desai originates from the Indian subcontinent, particularly from the regions of Gujarat and Maharashtra. It is derived from the Sanskrit word "desh" meaning "country" or "land", and "ai" signifying a person in a position of authority. Historically, Desai referred to individuals who held land or served as village chiefs, often responsible for administration and revenue collection. The surname is found among various communities, including Brahmins, Jains, and Marathas. While the surname is common among Anavil Brahmins, Jains, and Hindus in Gujarat, it is also associated with various communities in Maharashtra, including Deshastha Brahmins, Prabhus, and Marathas. Desais often held titles like Rao, Rai, or Raje, reflecting their status as rulers of villages or regions, and they were sometimes granted by rulers like the Maratha emperors or Mughal emperors. The term "Desai" is also found in compound forms like "Raja Sar Desai" (a title used in Maratha Savantvadi State) and "Mutalik Desai" (a title in Maharashtra and Karnataka).
In Gujarat, the Modi surname is used by Hindus, Muslims, and Parsis. There are people with the Modi surname among Vaishnavas (Baniyas), Kharwas (fishermen from Porbandar), and Lohanas (who are a community of traders). Narendra Modi is from the Modh Ghanchi caste of Gujarat.
History. In the Gujarat and Rajasthan region, the name 'Shah', 'Sha', or 'Sah' may be derived from Gujarati sah meaning "merchant" (from Sanskrit sadhu meaning "honest, good") and Prakrit Sahu, while the actual spelling "Shah" was popularized by the Persian word for King.
11th century CE started on 1st Jan 1001 AD.
The 11th century spanned from the years 1001 to 1100 and marked the early part of the High Middle Ages in Europe, a time defined by massive political, religious, and cultural shifts across the globe.
1054: The Great Schism permanently divided Christianity into Western Latin and Eastern Greek branches in 1054.
1066: William the Conqueror led the Norman Conquest of England, winning the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
1095: Pope Urban II called for the First Crusade in 1095, beginning centuries of holy wars in the Middle East.
The Seljuk Turk Dynasty rose to power across the Middle East and the Abbasid realm.
China saw advanced developments during the Song Dynasty, including early mechanical clockworks.
William the Conqueror: Duke of Normandy and King of England.
Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Persian polymath who wrote The Canon of Medicine.
Canute the Great: Viking king who ruled England, Denmark, and Norway.
Leif Erikson: Norse explorer who reached North America around 1000.
1000s: The Guhilas was controlled by the Kingdom of Malwa in the 11th century and by the Chahamanas in the 12th century. Guhila ruler Samantsingh established another branch of Guhilas in Vagad and also fought alongside the defeated Prithviraja III of Ajmer in Second Battle of Tarain against Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghuri.
1000s: Timbuktu is an ancient city in Mali, West Africa, located near the Niger River. Founded around the 11th or 12th century by Tuareg nomads, it became a legendary hub for trans-Saharan trade and Islamic learning during the 14th to 16th centuries under the Mali and Songhai Empires. Sat at the meeting point of the Sahara Desert and the Niger River; Traded gold, salt, and books; Grew wealthy under rulers like Mansa Musa. Home to Sankore University and famous madrasahs.Attracted thousands of scholars from across the Muslim world.Produced and stored hundreds of thousands of historic manuscripts.Built famous mud-brick mosques like Djinguereber, Sankore, and Sidi Yahia.
1000s:[crime] Late Ancient to Medieval Period (11th – 13th Century): Legal frameworks like the Mitakshara law (11th century) extended the undisturbed possession period required for establishing absolute ownership rights to 100 years, expanding to 105 years under Smriti Chandrika in the 13th century. This gradual inflation of timelines reflected a growing shift toward formalized, multi-generational inheritance and state-recognized individual title. (land encroachment)
1001:
1005:[crime][gov] Song Dynasty China: Following the invention of paper money (jiaozi), counterfeiting of paper notes emerged. The Chinese government responded with complex colored designs, official seals, and strict death penalties.
1010:The Brihadeeswarar Temple or the Big Temple was completed around 1010 CE during the reign of the Chola emperor Rajaraja I. The temple is entirely built of granite and is dedicated to Lord Shiva. Its huge massive vimana rises over 200 feet high and is topped with a single granite block weighing about 80 tons. The temple complex also houses an enormous Nandi (bull) statue. Even after a thousand years, the temple remains an active center of worship.
1014: Brian's death at the Battle of Clontarf. Viking age ends.
1016:[GeoPolitics][Military][Economics][Business] Conflict Context: The 1016-1017 attack was a retaliatory strike after the Javanese Mataram Kingdom attempted to curb Srivijayan trade dominance. The Mataram–Srivijayan War (early 11th century) was a major conflict where the Sumatra-based Srivijaya empire allied with a Javanese vassal to destroy the Medang Kingdom of Java in a "Pralaya" (destruction). The attack, led by King Wurawari of Lwaram, killed the Javanese King Dharmawangsa, leading to the collapse of the Mataram kingdom and causing years of regional instability. Outcome: The kingdom was destroyed, leaving central and eastern Java in chaos, and Airlangga, the son-in-law of the deceased king, eventually restored power and founded the Kahuripan Kingdom.
Other Related Conflicts: Other major conflicts on Java during this period included the Javanese Wars of Succession (1703–1755), the Diponegoro War (1825–1830), and the Japanese invasion of Sumatra (1942).
1017:[Travel] In 1017, al-Biruni travelled to the Indian subcontinent and wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled Tārīkh al-Hind ("The History of India"), after exploring the Hindu faith practiced in India.[a] He was, for his time, an admirably impartial writer on the customs and creeds of various nations, his scholarly objectivity earning him the title al-Ustadh ("The Master") in recognition of his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.
1017: [Travel] [India] At the behest of Sultan Mahmud of Persia, Alberuni, also known as Al-Biruni, travelled to India to learn about the Hindus and to discuss with them questions of religion, science and literature and what formed the very basis of their civilization. He remained in India for thirteen years, his exploration and study of the country gave way to a scholarly work that, in its profound understanding of almost all aspects of Indian life, remained unmatched for eight hundred years. He later published, Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India About A.D.1030
1018:[UK] Scotland and England are separated by the Anglo-Scottish border, the Cheviot Hills, and the River Tweed. The Borderlands: “The river enters the North Sea at Berwick, a town that changed hands 13 times before finally becoming English in 1482.”, as noted by Discover Britain Magazine. It served as a recognized frontier between Scotland and England following the 1018 Battle of Carham and the 1237 Treaty of York. Medieval Economy: The river valley was heavily shaped by wealthy 12th-century abbeys—such as Melrose, Kelso, and Dryburgh—founded by King David I to drive local trade in wool, hides, and agriculture. The Tweed Cloth Connection: According to Wikipedia, “a London merchant, James Locke, received a letter from a Hawick firm... about some 'tweels'. The merchant misinterpreted the handwriting, understanding it to be a trade-name taken from the River Tweed.” This 1831 labeling error permanently renamed the rugged Scottish twill fabric to "tweed". The River Tweed originates in the Lowther Hills of Scotland, flows 97 miles (156 km) east, and empties into the North Sea at Berwick-upon-Tweed. Its name comes from an old Celtic word meaning "border," and it famously gives its name to tweed wool cloth. Source: Begins at Tweed’s Well in the Scottish Lowther Hills near the source of the River Clyde.Length: Spans approximately 97 miles (156 km).Mouth: Flows into the North Sea at Berwick-upon-Tweed.Geography: Acts as the natural and historic boundary between Scotland and northern England for part of its lower course.
1020:[Tourism][UK] AD 1020 (First Record): The earliest documented evidence of the settlement occurs when Alfric, Bishop of East Anglia, took ownership of the land. The coastal town of Southwold, England, does not have a single exact "establishment" date, but its earliest written records date back to AD 1020, and it officially became a self-governing town when it received its Royal Charter in 1489.
1022: The Sessho-seki, a famous rock in Nasu, Japan that was said to have imprisoned the evil nine-tailed fox demoness Tamamo-no-Mae, was found broken in half. - Mar 6, 2022
1022:[India][FnB] Zalebia in Arab countries (Jalebi in India)
1025:[History] Somnath attacked by Mahmood Gaznavi. Killed about 50000 people (Hindus) who tried to protect it.
1025:[History] Somnath attacked by Mahmood Gaznavi. Killed about 50000 people (Hindus) who tried to protect it.
1025:[History] The fall of the Somnath temple refers to its sack by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1025-1026 CE. Mahmud, a Muslim ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, targeted the temple during his fifteenth invasion of India, aiming to plunder its wealth and destroy the revered deity. The attack resulted in significant casualties and the destruction of the temple, earning Mahmud the title "The Idol Breaker".
1025:Saurashtrian silk weavers, known as Patunulkars, migrated from Gujarat to South India, notably to Tamil Nadu, after the fall of the Somnath temple to Mahmud of Ghazni. The Saurashtrians in South India have maintained their language (a dialect of Gujarati called Patunli) and cultural identity, with Madurai in Tamil Nadu considered their cultural center. While the Saurashtra language is a branch of ancient Gujarati, it has absorbed influences from Tamil, Marathi, and Sindhi. It has its own script, also called Saurashtra, which is used alongside Tamil, Telugu, and Dvagadagi scripts.
1027: Avicenna first proposed one of the principles underlying geologic time scales, the law of superposition of strata, while discussing the origins of mountains in The Book of Healing.
1040: Khaidu was born (c. 1040-1100). He was a Mongol ruler from the Borjigin clan who was the great-great-grandson of Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 850-900). Khaidu's great-grandson was Khabul Khan (c. 1100-1148). Khabul Khan's great-grandson was Genghis Khan (1162-1227).
1040:Macbethad mac Findláech (anglicised as Macbeth MacFinlay; died 15 August 1057), nicknamed the Red King (Middle Irish: Rí Deircc),[1] was King of Scotland from 1040 until his death in 1057. He ruled during the period of Scottish history known as the Kingdom of Alba. (William Shakespeare)
1040: Khaidu was born (c. 1040-1100). He was a Mongol ruler from the Borjigin clan who was the great-great-grandson of Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 850-900). Khaidu's great-grandson was Khabul Khan (c. 1100-1148). Khabul Khan's great-grandson was Genghis Khan (1162-1227).
1040:Macbethad mac Findláech (anglicised as Macbeth MacFinlay; died 15 August 1057), nicknamed the Red King (Middle Irish: Rí Deircc),[1] was King of Scotland from 1040 until his death in 1057. He ruled during the period of Scottish history known as the Kingdom of Alba. (William Shakespeare)
1048 (Dec 13): [Travel][India] Al-Biruni died aged 75 at Ghazni, Afghanistan. He studied Indian society and first called the people living around the river Sindhu as Hindus. and subsequently the word Hindustan came.
1050:[Travel][Who] Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973 to 1050), known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously "Father of Comparative Religion", "Father of modern geodesy", Founder of Indology and the first anthropologist. Wikipedia Born: 9 September 973 AD, Beruniy, Uzbekistan Died: 13 December 1048 (age 75 years), Ghazni, Afghanistan Influenced by: al-Battani, Aryabhata, Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani, Abu Nasr Mansur Full name: Abu Rayhan al-Biruni Parents: Mehraneh, Abu-Jafar Ahmad Ibn Ali Andijani Notable work(s): The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, Gems, Indica, The Mas'udi Canon, Understanding Astrology Region: Khwarezm, Central Asia; Buyid dynasty (Rey) Ghaznavid dynasty (Ghazni)
1051: [India] Anangpal II, popularly known as Anangpal Tomar, was a ruler from the Tomar Rajput dyansty from Kuru region, Haryana. He is known to have established and populated Delhi in the 11th century (till 1081). As per his contemporary Vibudh Shridhar's Parshwanath Charit, he defeated Turks led by Ibrahim Ghaznavi in Himachal pradesh and thereafter Kalashdev of Utpala dynasty in Kashmir. He built Lal Kot (Red Fort) and removed the celebrated iron pillar (Vijay Stambh or Victory Tower) and planted it in Mehrauli in 1052 CE. Reign of Tomar dynasty lasted till 1179, when Chauhans from Ajmer, Rajasthan overtook Delhi for 13 years, followed by Sunni muslim Ghoris from central Afghanistan for 14 years, 84 years by slave kings of Ghori, 30 years by Mamluk-slave Sunni muslims Khiljis from southern Afghanistan, 94 years by Mongol-Turkish origin Sunni muslims Tughlaqs from present-day east Pakistan, 37 years by Sunni rulers Saiyyads from Multan, Pakistan, 35 years by Pashtun Sunni tribe Lodhis from Afghanistan-Pakistan region, 331 years by Mughals from Uzbekistan and finally 90 years by the English from Britain. Tughlaqs were from Turkestan i.e. lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to modern-day eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, parts of southern Kazakhstan, parts of Turkmenistan and southern Kyrgyzstan.
1051: [India] Anangpal II, popularly known as Anangpal Tomar, was a ruler from the Tomar Rajput dyansty from Kuru region, Haryana. He is known to have established and populated Delhi in the 11th century (till 1081). As per his contemporary Vibudh Shridhar's Parshwanath Charit, he defeated Turks led by Ibrahim Ghaznavi in Himachal pradesh and thereafter Kalashdev of Utpala dynasty in Kashmir. He built Lal Kot (Red Fort) and removed the celebrated iron pillar (Vijay Stambh or Victory Tower) and planted it in Mehrauli in 1052 CE. Reign of Tomar dynasty lasted till 1179, when Chauhans from Ajmer, Rajasthan overtook Delhi for 13 years, followed by Sunni muslim Ghoris from central Afghanistan for 14 years, 84 years by slave kings of Ghori, 30 years by Mamluk-slave Sunni muslims Khiljis from southern Afghanistan, 94 years by Mongol-Turkish origin Sunni muslims Tughlaqs from present-day east Pakistan, 37 years by Sunni rulers Saiyyads from Multan, Pakistan, 35 years by Pashtun Sunni tribe Lodhis from Afghanistan-Pakistan region, 331 years by Mughals from Uzbekistan and finally 90 years by the English from Britain. Tughlaqs were from Turkestan i.e. lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to modern-day eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, parts of southern Kazakhstan, parts of Turkmenistan and southern Kyrgyzstan.
1052:[Delhi] Qila Rai Pithora or Lal Kot (lit. "Rai Pithora's Fort") is a fortified complex in present-day Delhi, which includes the Qutb Minar complex. It was constructed in the reign of Rajput Tomar ruler Anangpal Tomar between c. 1052 - c.1060 CE. It is termed as the "First city of Delhi". Remains of the fort walls are scattered across South Delhi, visible in present Saket, Mehrauli around Qutb complex, Sanjay Van, Kishangarh and Vasant Kunj areas.
1066: Norman conquest of England halted the Viking Age in Scandinavian. Influx of English mercenaries into the Byzantine Army in the wake of the Norman Conquest of 1066; ethnic or national consciousness among those English émigrés serving the Emperor in Constantinople from 1066 to 1204. Acc. to a hypothesis, before 1066 Anglo-Saxons went eastwards to serve in the Greek army.
Justice for the Anglo-Saxons and even after the Norman invasion of 1066 was a combination of local and royal government. Local courts were presided over by a lord or one of his stewards. The King’s court – the Curia Regis – was, initially at least, presided over by the King himself.
Justice for the Anglo-Saxons and even after the Norman invasion of 1066 was a combination of local and royal government. Local courts were presided over by a lord or one of his stewards. The King’s court – the Curia Regis – was, initially at least, presided over by the King himself.
1066:The Battle of Hastings (1066) Battle of Hastings Key Context: Conflict between King Harold II of England and William, Duke of Normandy (later William the Conqueror) Significance: The Battle of Hastings was fought on October 14, 1066, and ended in the defeat of Harold II. William, Duke of Normandy, was crowned king of England, marking the start of Norman rule. Why It’s Famous: It was a turning point in English history, transforming its culture, language, and legal system. The Norman conquest established feudalism in England and increased the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. Key Events: Battle Preparation: William assembled a fleet and crossed the English Channel. Battle Outcome: Harold II was killed during the battle, possibly by an arrow to the eye, as depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry. Major Consequences: The Normans built castles throughout England, including the Tower of London. Norman French blended with Old English, creating the foundations of the modern English language. The Domesday Book (1086): An extensive survey of land ownership commissioned by William to assess taxes. Long-Term Impact: The Norman influence reshaped England’s legal and social systems and strengthened ties with continental Europe. Modern English owes much of its vocabulary to this period.
1066:[Tourism][UK] The easternmost point of England's Jurassic Coast is here at the Isle of Purbeck, and one of its scenic highlights are the chalk stacks we see marching into the sea at the bottom of our image. Old Harry Rocks, as they're so vividly named, are icons of the Isle of Purbeck, which is not an island exactly but a peninsula bounded on three sides by the English Channel. Among its Dorset charms are cozy little seaside villages, a castle dating from 1066, and reportedly the highest variety of native and introduced wildflowers compared to any other area of similar size in Britain.
1068: Nottingham Castle was constructed in 1068 on a sandstone outcrop by the River Leen.
1078: The Tower of London, officially Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London.
1078: The Tower of London, officially Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London.
1086:[UK] 1086 (Domesday Book): Southwold is officially listed in the Domesday Book as a small, developing fishing port. Its name derives from the Anglo-Saxon "Sudwolda," which means "south forest" or "south wood".
1086:[Tourism][UK] During the medieval period, Southwold emerged as a powerful East Anglian fishing port, with its economy officially documented as a developing fishing hub in the Domesday Book of 1086. Powered by the lucrative herring trade and deep-sea expeditions for cod as far as Iceland, the town's maritime fleet expanded rapidly throughout the 13th century. Despite bitter trade rivalries with the nearby port of Dunwich and severe harbor silting issues in the 14th century, Southwold's economic independence was secured in 1489 when King Henry VII granted the town its Royal Charter, establishing it as a free market town.
1088:[Education][EU][Public] University of Bologna, Italy founded and still in operation.
1093: Mahmud of Ghazni conquered Amroha.1094:[EU] St Mark's Basilica, a catholic church (styled Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic) was consecrated. Constrcuted over 7 years stating from 829 to 836.
------------------------------------- The Crusades started in East Mediterranean -----------------------------
1095: The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The term refers especially to the Eastern Mediterranean campaigns in the period between 1096 and 1271 that had the objective of recovering the Holy Land from Islamic rule.
1096:[Education][UK][Public] University of Oxford was granted an official building.
1099:When did Muslims lose Jerusalem? Unification: Saladin and the Fall of Jerusalem
Muslims lost control of Jerusalem to the Crusaders during the First Crusade in 1099 CE. The Crusaders captured the city after a siege, resulting in a massacre of many of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants
10xx: William II (1087-1100) eventually banned trial by ordeal. It was condemned by the Church in 1216.
10xx:[history] The Lingaraja Temple was built in the 11th century and remains one of the oldest and most revered temples in Odisha. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is a stunning example of Kalinga-style architecture. The main tower rises to about 180 feet and is surrounded by numerous smaller shrines within a large courtyard. Its exquisite carvings and towering spire continue to dominate the skyline of Bhubaneswar.
11xx: messenger pigeons were used in Baghdad.
1100s: If a university is considered to be a degree granting institution, all of the world's oldest are located in Europe, where the practice of granting certification was widespread by the 1100s.
10xx:[history] The Lingaraja Temple was built in the 11th century and remains one of the oldest and most revered temples in Odisha. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is a stunning example of Kalinga-style architecture. The main tower rises to about 180 feet and is surrounded by numerous smaller shrines within a large courtyard. Its exquisite carvings and towering spire continue to dominate the skyline of Bhubaneswar.
11xx: messenger pigeons were used in Baghdad.
12th century CE started on 1st Jan 1101 AD.
1100s:[Food][Agri] Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China. The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to the 12th century during the Song dynasty. In the early 20th century, cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred.
1100s:[History][India]The Patiala ruling family remotely claimed origins from Bhati Rajputs of Jaisalmer in the 12th century, specifically the Jadon Bhati chief Jaisal who was the founder and first ruler of Jaisalmer. Based on this, the Phulkian rulers claimed Rajput status up-to the 20th century. At some point, their ancestors moved from Jaisalmer in Rajasthan to Phul in Punjab. The ruling house claims descent from Rao Hem Hel of Jaisalmer, the third son of Jaisal, who settled in 1185 at Bhatinda. Other sources describe Hem Hel as being the grandson of Jaisal. Hem Hel would expand to Hisar, where he was pushed back to Bhatinda by Prithviraj Chauhaun. Hem Hel managed to take control of territory located south of Muktsar and expelled the previous Punwar rulers from the tract. Hem Hel died in 1214 and was succeeded by his son Jaidrath (Jundar). (During First Anglo-Sikh War, Patiala supported EIC against the Sikhs)
1100s:[Medicine][Book] Another important medical book was written around 1100 CE by Madhavacharya. The book was called Madhava Nidana. The book contained all information regarding diseases of women, children, diseases of the ear, nose, and throat, and toxicology. The Madhava Nidana was one of the first and most important books of what is called the “Junior Triad” of Ayurveda. The Junior Triad texts include Madhava Nidana, Sarangdhar Samhita, and the Bhavaprakasham. On the other hand, Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Ashtanga Hrudayam constitute the Senior Triad.
1100s:[crime] 12th–14th Centuries (Medieval Europe): Alehouses and monastic taprooms spread across Europe. Alewives brew and sell home-brewed ale in unregulated local spaces, prompting early municipal licensing laws.
1100s–1200s:[crime] The School of Salerno in Italy refines alcohol distillation. Knowledge of making "aqua vitae" (water of life) spreads across Europe.
1100:
1115:[Food][Agri] The long history of the world's most popular flavor begins in Mexico nearly 900 years ago. It was there that the Totonac Indians are believed to have cultivated the vanilla orchid indigenous to the tropical areas of Mexico and Latin America around 1115.
1117:[Tech] Heating wine for preservation has been known in China since AD 1117 and was documented in Japan in the diary Tamonin-nikki written by a series of monks between 1478 and 1618.
1118: Alexios I Komnenos was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118.
1118:[Christian][Books] Matilda of Scotland died. She was m/o Empress Matilda (who died aged 65 in Rouen, France). Work on Gesta Pontificum Anglorum was begun before her death.
1121:[tour][de] The history of Ramsau began with the founding of the Berchtesgaden Abbey in the year 1121. The uninhabited mountain valley was characterized by dark forests, steep rocky peaks, and wild animals. Only occasionally, hunters ventured here until Provost Eberwein and his monastery brothers cleared the forest and recruited settlers to cultivate the land. In the late 13th century, Ramsau was first mentioned in historical documents. At that time, the trade route for ‘Halleinisches Salz’ (Salt from Hallein) already existed, crossing over the Hirschbichl into the Pinzgau region. Particularly significant for the area was the land charter issued by the Berchtesgaden Abbey in 1377, which allowed farmers to acquire their farms and alpine pastures as freehold properties through hereditary rights (Lehen). Though the modest farms in the valley were upgraded with alpine rights, the yields were often not sufficient to sustain a family.
1130: reign of Khabul Khan in Mongol. He was the first known Khan of the Khamag Mongol confederation and great-grandfather to Genghis Khan.
1150: University of Paris.
1130: reign of Khabul Khan in Mongol. He was the first known Khan of the Khamag Mongol confederation and great-grandfather to Genghis Khan.
1150: University of Paris.
1156:[History][India]Ala Singh was born into the Phulkian dynasty, named after Chaudhary Phul Sidhu-Brar, Singh's paternal grandfather, who was also the common ancestor of the rulers of Nabha, Jind and Faridkot.[1][10] Singh is claimed to be a direct descendant of Rawal Jaisal Singh, the founder and first ruler of the Kingdom of Jaisalmer from 1156 to 1168, Jaisal Singh, is further said to be a descendant of Rao Bhatti, a 3rd-century Hindu king.
1157:[Tour][de] The first phase of Eltz Castle's construction in the Rhineland-Palatinate region of Germany began in 1157, and members of the Eltz family have owned the castle ever since. A dispute among three brothers in 1268 caused the estate to be split among them, and the castle remains divided between these three branches of the family—the Rübenachs, Rodendorfs, and Kempenichs. Additions and renovations between the late 15th and early 17th centuries created separate portions of the castle for each of the families. Though the other two branches of the family no longer occupy Eltz Castle, descendants of the Kempenichs still use their portion. Unsurprisingly, it's the only part of Eltz Castle that has heating in all the rooms.
1159: The metaphor of dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nanos gigantum humeris insidentes) expresses the meaning of "discovering truth by building on previous discoveries". This concept has been attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Its most familiar expression in English is by Isaac Newton in 1675: "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." The attribution to Bernard of Chartres is due to John of Salisbury. In 1159, John wrote in his Metalogicon: "Bernard of Chartres used to compare us to dwarfs perched on the shoulders of giants. He pointed out that we see more and farther than our predecessors, not because we have keener vision or greater height, but because we are lifted up and borne aloft on their gigantic stature.""If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.“ Bernard of Chartres circa 1159 AD
1160:[ety] Early Settlement: Copenhagen began as a small Viking fishing community and trading post named Kaupmannahǫfn (meaning "merchants' harbour"). Latin Designation: When Latin was used for official and scholarly records, the city was designated as Hafnia, which directly translates to "haven" or "harbour". 1160–1167: Bishop Absalon fortified the small settlement by building a castle, which helped the city grow rapidly into a commercial hub.
1167: University of Oxford.
1169: Norman invasion of Ireland. Lord of Ireland was also the king of England.
1170: Leonardo Fibonacci—was an Italian mathematician, considered to be "the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages". Fibonacci popularized the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western World primarily through his composition in 1202 of Liber Abaci (Book of Calculation). He also introduced Europe to the sequence of Fibonacci numbers, which he used as an example in Liber Abaci.
1170: Jaichand, an Indian king from the Gahadavala dynasty. He ruled the Antarvedi country in the Gangetic plains, including the important cities of Kanyakubja and Varanasi. His territory included much of the present-day eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar. The last powerful king of his dynasty, he was defeated and killed in 1194 CE, while fighting against a Ghurid army led by Qutb al-Din Aibak.
1171: The court of Lord Chief Justice of Ireland was created during the Lordship of Ireland (1171–1536) and continued in existence under the Kingdom of Ireland (1536–1800) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
1171:[China] Name Origin: First recorded as "Huangpu Tang" in 1171 during the Southern Song Dynasty, evolving to "Huangpu" by 1250.
1174:[History][EMEA] Baldwin IV, aged 13 became the king of Jerusalem until his death in 1185. He was admired by his contemporaries and later historians for his willpower and dedication to the Latin Kingdom in the face of debilitating leprosy.
1178: At the age of 12, Prithviraj Chauhan of Chahmana dynasty started his reign from his capital Ajmer.
1178: Henry II first chose five members of his personal household – two clergy and three lay – “to hear all the complaints of the realm and to do right”. The seeds of the modern justice system were sown by Henry II (1154-1189), who established a jury of 12 local knights to settle disputes over the ownership of land. When Henry came to the throne, there were just 18 judges in the country – compared to more than 40,000 today.
1178: Henry II first chose five members of his personal household – two clergy and three lay – “to hear all the complaints of the realm and to do right”. The seeds of the modern justice system were sown by Henry II (1154-1189), who established a jury of 12 local knights to settle disputes over the ownership of land. When Henry came to the throne, there were just 18 judges in the country – compared to more than 40,000 today.
1179:[History][EMEA] The Battle of Marj Ayyun - Baldwin IV, outnumbered, inexperienced, suffering leprosy, and only 16 years old, defeated Saladin who, according to the chronicler William of Tyre (l. 1130-1186), only escaped capture by fleeing the field on a camel. His defeat resulted in a loss of prestige, which he then needed to win back.
1182:[History][EMEA] Saladin did defeat Baldwin IV in the Battle of Marj Ayyun and the Siege of Jacob's Ford in 1179, only to be defeated by Baldwin again at the Battle of Belvoir Castle in 1182 and the Siege of Kerak in 1183.
1185:[Culture][Sufi] Shams-i Tabrīzī (Persian: شمس تبریزی) or Shams al-Din Mohammad (1185–1248) was a Persian Shafi'ite poet, weaver, philosopher and teacher born in Tabriz, Iran and died aged 63 in Khoy, Iran . He is credited as the spiritual instructor of Mewlānā Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Balkhi, also known as Rumi and is referenced with great reverence in Rumi's poetic collection, in particular Diwan-i Shams-i Tabrīzī. Tradition holds that Shams taught Rumi in seclusion in Konya for a period of forty days, before fleeing for Damascus. The tomb of Shams-i Tabrīzī was recently nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
1185:[Tourism][EU] Old Stone Bridge and Church of St. Demetrius in Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria - The two most famous historic old stone bridges in Bulgaria are the Devil's Bridge (Dyadovstki / Dyavolski most) and the Old Bridge in Svilengrad (Mustafa Pasha Bridge), (re-)constructed in the early 16th century. Seen here through an arch of the Old Stone Bridge, Bulgaria's Church of St. Demetrius is proof you can't keep a good building down. The mediaeval Orthodox church in the city of Veliko Tarnovo was ruined by earthquakes and looted multiple times in its nine-century history, but was fully rebuilt after an especially strong quake in 1913 razed it. Said to be the site where leaders Peter and Asen declared independence from the Byzantine Empire circa 1185, the restored church stands as a symbol of Bulgarian pride here in the nation's historical capital.
1187:Saladin, a Muslim leader, reconquered Jerusalem from the Crusaders, ending Christian control.
1191: Mohd. Ghori (also known as, Mu'izz) proceeded towards Hindustan through the Khyber Pass in modern-day Pakistan and was successful in reaching Punjab. Mu'izz captured a fortress, Bathinda in present-day Punjab state on the northwestern frontier of Prithvīrāj Chauhān's kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din as governor of the fortress.
1192:[India][Culture] Politics and power struggle between Prithviraj (Chahamana King) and Shahabuddin Ghori. Prithviraj defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191. But Prithviraj was defeated by Ghori in 1192, and hence the shift in food, clothing, language and culture of Delhi to Turkish and Afghani. Intro of method of Pit roasting in food. Rice was stored in the walls of fort for 50-90 years and it becomes black. Fukka barley beer, private and public dinner mutton, teetar, bater, biryani, naan, samosa, paan and jaggery. lot of butter and sweetmeat.
1193:Ghori conquered Delhi in 1193 and returned to Khorasan leaving his Indian conquests to the care of Aibak. He annexed the region between the rivers Ganga and Yamuna. His lieutenant Bakhtiyar Khilji conquered Bihar and Bengal. Aibak fought against the Rajput rulers who were resisting the Muslim invasions.
1193: Nalanda and Vikramshila were the two most important centres of learning in India during the Pala Empire. During the year 1193, an army led by the Turkish leader Bakhtiyar Khilji, the general of sultan Qutubuddin Aibak destroyed these two. After Takshila, The second largest university Nalanda, 9 million books, were being burnt by Bakhtiyer Khilji in 1193. City partially destroyed, libraries sacked and burned. Nalanda University complex (the most renowned repository of Buddhist knowledge in the world at the time) was sacked by Turkic Muslim invaders under the perpetrator; this event is seen as a milestone in the decline of Buddhism in India.
1193:[USSR] Chernobyl’s foundation date is considered to be 1193, when the place was first mentioned in the Ipatievsky Chronicle. With the formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, the town came under its rule. Later, in the 18th century, Chernobyl was annexed to the Russian Empire as a township of the Kiev Governorate’s Radmomyshl Division, going on to become a major river traffic terminal. In 1921, Chernobyl became part of the Ukrainian SSR, and two years later, a centre of a district of the same name (receiving urban status in 1941). After 1990, these places began to attract pilgrims – religious Jews, who rebuilt the tombs of the zaddiks or holy men buried here. Services have been held in the single functioning Orthodox congregation in the exclusion zone – that of Saint Ilya’s Church - since 2001.
1199:[Delhi] Qutub Minar: Construction began in 1199 by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, but he only completed the first story. Iltutmish added three more stories, and Firoz Shah Tughlaq built the final two after a lightning strike. The timelines for the listed Delhi structures are as follows: Qutub Minar (1199-1368), Siri (1303), Tughlaqabad (1321-1323), Jahanpanah (mid-14th century), and Firozabad (1354).
119x: Raja Bachhraj, local ruler of Bachhraun.
13th century (1201 to 1300)
1200s:[Tourism][EU] Castle Tioram was one of Somerled's castles in his time (the 12th century), though some may date it from the 13th or 14th century. It appears to have originally been a principal stronghold of Clann Ruaidhrí. Eilean Tioram, the island the fortress sits upon, is first recorded in a charter of Cairistíona Nic Ruaidhrí, daughter of Ailéan mac Ruaidhrí. According to early modern tradition, preserved by the 17th-century Sleat History, the castle was erected by Ailéan's granddaughter, Áine Nic Ruaidhrí. The castle certainly served as the seat of the latter's Clann Raghnaill descendants for centuries. The castle can be seen in an opening aerial montage of the Highlander: The Series fourth season episode, "Homeland". [cinema]
1200s:[Tourism][EU] Tioram Castle's - Built in the 1200s, the first record we have of Castle Tioram refers to Christina of the Isles. She leased the island to the Campbells in return . Tioram Castle's name means 'dry' in Scottish Gaelic, but its setting is contrastingly soggy. Loch Moidart, the sea loch surrounding Tioram's tied island, is at the mercy of the tides. And since the only way to the castle is over these waterlogged sands, Tioram is inaccessible on foot during high tide. That kept the stronghold safe from encroaching infantry in its heyday, but now more danger lies within the castle than without: The unreinforced ruin is prone to crumbling, so while the privately owned islet welcomes tide-conscious trekkers, Tioram's interior is off limits. Castle Tioram (/ˈtʃiːrəm/; Scottish Gaelic: Caisteal Tioram, meaning "dry castle") is a ruined castle that sits on the tidal island Eilean Tioram in Loch Moidart, Scotland. It is north of Acharacle, approximately 80 km (50 mi) west of Fort William. Though hidden from the sea, the castle controls access to Loch Shiel. It is also known locally as Dorlin Castle. The castle is a scheduled monument.
13th century (1201 to 1300)
1200s:[Tourism][EU] Castle Tioram was one of Somerled's castles in his time (the 12th century), though some may date it from the 13th or 14th century. It appears to have originally been a principal stronghold of Clann Ruaidhrí. Eilean Tioram, the island the fortress sits upon, is first recorded in a charter of Cairistíona Nic Ruaidhrí, daughter of Ailéan mac Ruaidhrí. According to early modern tradition, preserved by the 17th-century Sleat History, the castle was erected by Ailéan's granddaughter, Áine Nic Ruaidhrí. The castle certainly served as the seat of the latter's Clann Raghnaill descendants for centuries. The castle can be seen in an opening aerial montage of the Highlander: The Series fourth season episode, "Homeland". [cinema]
1200s:[Tourism][EU] Tioram Castle's - Built in the 1200s, the first record we have of Castle Tioram refers to Christina of the Isles. She leased the island to the Campbells in return . Tioram Castle's name means 'dry' in Scottish Gaelic, but its setting is contrastingly soggy. Loch Moidart, the sea loch surrounding Tioram's tied island, is at the mercy of the tides. And since the only way to the castle is over these waterlogged sands, Tioram is inaccessible on foot during high tide. That kept the stronghold safe from encroaching infantry in its heyday, but now more danger lies within the castle than without: The unreinforced ruin is prone to crumbling, so while the privately owned islet welcomes tide-conscious trekkers, Tioram's interior is off limits. Castle Tioram (/ˈtʃiːrəm/; Scottish Gaelic: Caisteal Tioram, meaning "dry castle") is a ruined castle that sits on the tidal island Eilean Tioram in Loch Moidart, Scotland. It is north of Acharacle, approximately 80 km (50 mi) west of Fort William. Though hidden from the sea, the castle controls access to Loch Shiel. It is also known locally as Dorlin Castle. The castle is a scheduled monument.
1200:[History] The 13th century CE spans the years 1201 to 1300, marked by major events like the signing of the Magna Carta, the rise of the Mongol Empire, and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
1200: Qutb al-Din Aibak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate started construction of the Qutb Minar.
1200:[APAC] Chief Roi Mata (c. 1200–1600 AD): A significant figure in central Vanuatu, Chief Roi Mata is believed to have united tribes in the region. His burial site on Retoka Island, featuring numerous retainers, is a UNESCO World Heritage site. Society and Culture: The islands developed high cultural and linguistic diversity, with over 100 distinct languages. Social structures were often highly stratified, particularly in central areas.
1200:[Med] The Nighantu Period (13th Century CE): The Dhanvantari Nighantu, a key historical lexicon detailing the properties and synonyms of medicinal herbs and drugs, was compiled in his honor.
1206: The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan, and the Delhi Sultanate began in India.
1209:[Education][UK][Public] University of Cambridge founded.
1215: King John signed the Magna Carta in England.
1218:[Education][EU][Public] University of Salamanca, Spain founded.
1220:[Anthro][Culture] Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson writes the Prose Edda, recording the oral myths safely on paper long after people stopped actively believing in them.
1220:Transoxiana - Mongol & Timurid Era: Devastated by Genghis Khan in 1220–1221. Later, in the 14th century, it became the heart of the Timurid Empire under Timur (Tamerlane), with Samarkand as its capital.
1225:[APAC][SEAs] In 1225, the Chinese official Zhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom. Marco Polo suggested in his memoirs that the Great Khan or the ruler of the Mongol Empire, attempted and failed many times in invading "Great Java" which was the European name for Bruneian controlled Borneo.
1230:[Culture][Kinky] slang for vagina - Cunt, the first reference of the C-word in Oxford dictionary come as a name of a red-light street
1236:Yes, following their conquests in Central Asia and the Middle East, the Mongols expanded their empire into Europe, invading Russia, Poland, Hungary, and even pushing into Austria. Their two-pronged invasion of Poland and Hungary, spearheaded by Batu Khan and Kadan, resulted in the Battles of Legnica and Mohi, respectively.
1237:[Geopolitics][UK] The official border between Scotland and England was mainly set in the year 1237 by the Treaty of York. 1018: After the Battle of Carham, the River Tweed became the early unwritten or de facto border.1237: King Henry III of England and King Alexander II of Scotland signed the Treaty of York, officially fixing the terrestrial boundary. “Scotland's terrestrial border with England was fixed in 1237 by the Treaty of York.”1482: The town of Berwick-upon-Tweed was taken by England, changing the final shape of the line.1552: The "Debatable Lands" area was finally split in two using the Scots Dike, completing the modern layout.
1240:[Education][EU][Public] University of Siena, Italy founded.
1241:Kadan's northern force won a decisive victory against the Polish forces at the Battle of Legnica.
1241:Güyük's army triumphed in Transylvania, and Subutai led the central column to a decisive victory against the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohi.
1241:[Education][EU][Public] University of Valladolid, Spain founded.
1249:[greece] Byzantine Era: Grew into a major commercial and naval center, minting its own currency and exporting the famous Malvasia wine across Europe.Frankish and Venetian Control: Captured and traded by Western powers, including William II of Villehardouin in 1249 and later the Venetians.Ottoman Periods: Ruled by the Ottoman Empire (who called it Menekşe) from 1540 to 1690, and again from 1715.Greek Independence: Liberated on July 23, 1821, becoming part of the modern Greek state.
1250:[env] The Medieval Warm Period (950–1250 CE) was a time of warmer weather, mostly in the North Atlantic region and parts of Europe. It caused good crops and growth, but was a regional climate shift, not a global heat wave.
1250:[history] Konark Sun Temple in Odisha was constructed around 1250 CE by King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It is dedicated to the Sun God and is designed in the form of a massive chariot. The chariot’s 24 intricately carved stone wheels and seven galloping horses symbolize the passage of time. It is one of India’s most striking architectural wonders and a famous UNESCO World Heritage Site.
1253:[Military][Culture] Hulagu Khan was a Mongol ruler and the grandson of Genghis Khan. As the Mongols expanded their territory Hulagu was put it charge of conquering Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, Syria, and the Abbasid Caliphate, the territory that would become the Ilkhanate. From 1253 to 1256, Hulagu and his army were waging a campaign of conquest against the Nizaris in the Iranian region of Alamut.
1256:[Space] the Mongols took the Alamut castle, where al-Tusi and several other scholars had taken refuge to continue their studies. Hulagu respected al-Tusi for his scholarship in science and decided to appoint him as a wazir (vizier).
1256:[Art] Painting of Al-Tusi and colleagues working on the Zij-i Ilkhani at the observatory.
1258:Mongol forces captured Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate and destroying the House of Wisdom.
1259:[Space][Research] Maragheh Observatory, Maragheh, Iran
1271: Marco Polo began his famous journey to Asia. Marco Polo left Venice (island city in northeast Italy) at age 17 with his father Niccolò and uncle Maffeo. They began a legendary 24-year journey to Asia, traveling along the Silk Road to the court of the Mongol emperor Kublai Khan. Departure: Set off from Venice in 1271, sailing to Acre in the Middle East.Overland Route: Traveled through Persia, Afghanistan, and across high mountains and deserts.Arrival: Reached Kublai Khan's summer palace at Shangdu, China, in 1275. Return Home: Traveled back by sea via Sumatra and India, arriving in Venice in 1295. The Book: Dictated his adventures into a famous book called The Travels of Marco Polo while in prison.
1271:[Travel] Marco Polo's epic journey to China began in 1271 and concluded in 1295, with a total travel time of 24 years. He and his family traveled overland across Asia, a route known as the Silk Road, reaching China in 1275 and spending 17 years there before returning to Europe via a maritime route.
1275:[Tourism] The Polos traveled across deserts, mountains, and oceans, passing through modern-day Israel, Iran, Afghanistan, and China. The Outbound Journey (1271–1275): Marco Polo sailed from Venice to Acre, rode camels through Hormuz, climbed the Pamir Mountains, crossed the brutal Gobi Desert, and arrived at Kublai Khan's palace in Shangdu.
1275: Special Envoy: Polos traveled to remote areas like Yunnan, Tibet, and Burma to gather intelligence for the Khan. Tax Assessor: Inspected trade hubs, monitored the salt trade, and managed regional tax revenues. City Governor: Claims he served as the governor of the major trading city of Yangzhou for three years. Storyteller: Entertained the court with detailed political, cultural, and geographic reports from his travels.
1276:[Space][Research] Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory, Dengfeng, Henan, China - perhaps the first radio observatory?
1290:[Education][EU][Public] University of Coimbra, Portugal founded.
1290:[Education][EU][Public] University of Macerata, Italy founded.
1292:The Return Journey of Marco Polo (1292–1295): Polos escorted a Mongol princess by sea, sailing from Quanzhou past Sumatra and Sri Lanka, stopping at Hormuz, and heading overland through Trebizond back to Venice.
1297:[Education][EU][Public] University of Lleida, Spain founded.
1298:[Travel][Who] Venice and Genoa were bitter trading rivals at war, and Marco Polo joined the fight as a naval commander for his home city of Venice. Marco Polo was imprisoned from 1298 to 1299 because he was captured while commanding a Venetian warship during a naval conflict between the rival cities of Venice and Genoa. While imprisoned during a war with Genoa, Marco dictated his tales to cellmate (also a romance writer) named Rustichello da Pisa. The resulting book, The Travels of Marco Polo, heavily transformed European society. Sparked the Age of Discovery: Inspired explorers like Christopher Columbus, who kept a heavily annotated copy of the book while planning his 1492 voyage. Advanced Cartography: Provided the geographical data used to create the famous 1459 Fra Mauro map, mapping Asia accurately for Europeans for the first time. Introduced New Concepts: Revealed Asian innovations completely unknown to Europe, including paper money, coal burning, eyeglasses, and public postal systems.
13th century CE started on 1st Jan 1201 AD.
12xx:The surname Gokhale originates from Maharashtra, India, and is primarily associated with the Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmin community. It is derived from the Marathi word "gokhla," which refers to a "round window" or "cow's eye," stemming from the Sanskrit "gavākṣa". Historically, the Gokhale family is believed to have emerged in the 13th century and were often associated with landownership. The ancestral village of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a prominent figure associated with the surname, was Tamhanmala in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.
12xx: End of Islamic Golden Age.
12xx:[Culture][Kinky] Cock ring was first invented in China. Goat eyeballs and eyelids were used as cock rings
1202: Liber Abaci published by Fibonacci.
(CSE)
--------------------------------------- Late Medieval period in India - Starts --------------------------------------
Late Medieval Period: Starting from the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE.
1206 (Jun 12): [India][History] Quṭb al-Dīn Aibak, founded the Turkic dominion in northwestern India and the Mamluk Dynasty in Delhi.
1206:[History][India] The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) was a 320-year-long Islamic empire based in Delhi that governed large parts of the Indian subcontinent across five successive dynasties: Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi. Established after Ghorid conquests, it solidified Muslim rule in India, introduced Indo-Islamic architecture, and repelled Mongol invasions, finally falling to Babur’s Mughal invasion in 1526.
1206:[Delhi] The Delhi Sultanate was a series of five dynasties that ruled over Delhi and large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years, from 1206 to 1526 AD. These dynasties were the Mamluk or Slave dynasty (1206-1290), Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451), and Lodi dynasty (1451-1526) successively ruled Delhi. The Sultanate's history is marked by the establishment of Islamic rule in India, significant architectural and cultural developments, and interactions with various regional powers. The Sultanate was established following Muhammad Ghori's conquests in India, with Qutbuddin Aibak, his former slave, becoming the first Sultan. The Sultanate witnessed a blend of Persian and Indian cultures, resulting in notable advancements in literature, art, and architecture, including iconic structures like the Qutub Minar (1199 - 1388; 190 years).
1206:Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE):The Mongol conquests, particularly under Genghis Khan and his successors, unified vast territories and revived trade along the Silk Road. The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), established by Kublai Khan, saw the Silk Road reach its peak.
1207 (Sep 30): Rumi (Mawlānā (مولانا, "our master")), a Persian, Sunni Muslim poet, jurist, Islamic scholar, theologian, and Sufi mystic was born at Balkh or Wakhsh (present-day Tajikistan), Khwarezmian Empire and died aged 66 on 17 Dec 1273 in Konya (present-day Turkey), Sultanate of Rum. He had two spouses and four children. He was part of Islamic Golden Age (7th Islamic century)
1209: University of Cambridge was formed by scholars who left the University of Oxford over a dispute.
1210: Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (a.k.a. Altamash) florished the Delhi Sultanate and reigned for 26 years.
1215 (Jun 15): Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for "the Great Charter of the Liberties"), commonly called Magna Carta (also Magna Charta; "(the) Great Charter"), is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor.
1216: 'Trial by ordeal' was condemned by the Church in 1216.
1225: The Book of Squares published by Fibonacci.
1227 (Aug 18): Genghis Khan died aged 65. He became the founder and Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
1210: Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (a.k.a. Altamash) florished the Delhi Sultanate and reigned for 26 years.
1215 (Jun 15): Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for "the Great Charter of the Liberties"), commonly called Magna Carta (also Magna Charta; "(the) Great Charter"), is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor.
1216: 'Trial by ordeal' was condemned by the Church in 1216.
1225: The Book of Squares published by Fibonacci.
1227 (Aug 18): Genghis Khan died aged 65. He became the founder and Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
1231:[Delhi] A daughter of Mamluk Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish, Razia administered Delhi during 1231–1232 when her father was busy in the Gwalior campaign. Raziyyat-Ud-Dunya Wa Ud-Din, popularly known as Razia Sultana, was a ruler of the Delhi Sultanate in the northern part of the South Asian subcontinent. She was the first female Muslim ruler of South Asia. Born: 1205, Budaun Died: 15 October 1240 (age 35 years), Kaithal Children: Zubruddin Mirza Rashil Spouse: Malik Altunia (m. 1240–1240) Place of burial: Old Delhi, Delhi Siblings: Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah, Muiz ud din Bahram, Ruknuddin Firuz, Shazia Begum, Nasiruddin Mahmud Parents: Iltutmish, Qutub Begum.
They spread rumors about her affair with Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut, an Abyssinian Siddi (Habshi) slave. Hearing this, Altunia immediately revolted against her. She went to suppress his revolt in which Yahut was murdered and Razia was captured.
1236:[Delhi] The Qutub Minar was started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak and completed by Shamsuddin Iltutmish, who added three stories. Shams ud-Din Iltutmish was the third of the Mamluk kings who ruled the former Ghurid territories in northern India. He was the first Muslim sovereign to rule from Delhi, and is thus considered the effective founder of the Delhi Sultanate.
1236:[History][India] Sufism in 12th-century India marked the establishment of major mystical orders (silsilahs), most notably the Chishti order by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer (1142–1236 CE). Centered on divine love, renunciation, and interfaith harmony, these early Sufis brought a message of peace, establishing khanqahs (hospices) that welcomed all, laying the groundwork for the movement's, widespread influence under the Delhi Sultanate. (CSE)
1236:[History][India] Sufism in 12th-century India marked the establishment of major mystical orders (silsilahs), most notably the Chishti order by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer (1142–1236 CE). Centered on divine love, renunciation, and interfaith harmony, these early Sufis brought a message of peace, establishing khanqahs (hospices) that welcomed all, laying the groundwork for the movement's, widespread influence under the Delhi Sultanate. (CSE)
1240: A sizable chunk of Central Asia was united by the Golden Horde (the Mongols). The Mongols dislodged a slowly evolving state of Kievan Rus - a federation of Slavic people. Moscow started becoming a center by allying with the Mongols. The Mongols brought a lot of military tech and ideas of the east to Russia.
1242: Behram Shah (1240–42) appointed Malik Jalaluddin to the position of Hakim of Amroha.
1250s:[India][FnB] Free food to poor people each day by Muhammad Nizamuddin Auliya (also Mahbub-e-Ilahi (lit. 'Beloved of God') , Chirag-e-Dilli). Empty of grocery stores each 3 days.
1250s:[India][FnB] Free food to poor people each day by Muhammad Nizamuddin Auliya (also Mahbub-e-Ilahi (lit. 'Beloved of God') , Chirag-e-Dilli). Empty of grocery stores each 3 days.
1250s: Kites reached Europe in the late 13th century, with Marco Polo describing their use in China.
1253: a Sufi musician, poet and scholar, Amir Khusrow was born at Patiyali, Delhi Sultanate. Also featured in folk music and later in a re-mastered version of the song Rang by Rahat Fateh Ali Khan & Amjad Sabri in Coke Studio Season 9 (Sep 2016). रैनि चढ़ी रसूल की, सो रंग मौला के हाथ
जा का चोला रंग दिओ, सो धन धन्वा के भाग;; खुसरो रैन सुहाग की, सो मई जाएगी पी के संग
तन मोरा मन पीहू का, सो दोनों एक ही रंग . NFAK, RFAK, Sabri Brothers
1268:[Technology][History] The magnifying glass was invented by the Franciscan friar and scholar Roger Bacon (UK) (c. 1214-1292) in Oxford, UK. The first mention of its use was in 1268. He adapted its use as primitive spectacles, allowing scholars with failing eyesight to continue their work.
1279: Yuan Dynasty of China started lasted till 1368.
1279:[History] The Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) was a Chinese dynasty ruled by the Mongol Empire, marking the first time China was under foreign rule. Founded by Kublai Khan, it unified China after defeating the Southern Song dynasty. The dynasty eventually fell due to internal strife, economic troubles, and the Red Turban Rebellion, which led to the rise of the Ming dynasty.
1282: Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (7 August 1282 – 5 May 1316) was the eighth and youngest daughter of King Edward I and Queen Eleanor of Castile. Of all of her siblings, she was closest to her younger brother King Edward II, as they were only two years apart in age.
1291:
--------------------------------------------------- The Crusades halted ----------------------------------------------
1296: Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji, the first sultan of the Khilji dynasty was killed at Kara-Manikpur (UP) by his nephew Alauddin. 1297: Ala-ud-Din Khalji, the Turkic (Afghan, Sunni Muslim) ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, created Siri between 1297 and 1307 to defend against Mongol invasions of India and Delhi.
In response he built Siri Fort, mimicked massive Turkish ones. The Fort served as the seat of his power during his campaigns to enlarge his territory.
1298: Book of the Marvels of the World (French: Livre des Merveilles du Monde) or Description of the World (Devisement du Monde), in Italian Il Milione (The Million) or Oriente Poliano and in English commonly called The Travels of Marco Polo.
1299: Ottoman Empire founded in northwestern Anatolia in the vicinity of Bilecik and Söğüt by the Oghuz Turkish tribal leader Osman.
In response he built Siri Fort, mimicked massive Turkish ones. The Fort served as the seat of his power during his campaigns to enlarge his territory.
1298: Book of the Marvels of the World (French: Livre des Merveilles du Monde) or Description of the World (Devisement du Monde), in Italian Il Milione (The Million) or Oriente Poliano and in English commonly called The Travels of Marco Polo.
1299: Ottoman Empire founded in northwestern Anatolia in the vicinity of Bilecik and Söğüt by the Oghuz Turkish tribal leader Osman.
1299-1300:[Culture][Civilization] The Incas. The place, known as Peru today, was the home of the people of this tribe. It was the largest empire in 13th century. This was an agricultural civilization, which was known for their well developed irrigation system. According to historic books, they have a planned and extensive irrigation system, which was unique at that time. We can find paintings made by these people, although, there was no written language used by Incas.
14th century CE started on 1st Jan 1301 AD.
---------------------------------------- The Renaissance starts -------------------------------------------
13xx:[History] The 14th century (1301–1400) was a tumultuous period of crisis and transformation, marked by the devastating Black Death plague (1347–1351) that killed 30–60% of Europe's population. This era experienced the Little Ice Age, the Hundred Years' War, and the Great Famine. Despite these catastrophes, it was a time of significant change, including the rise of the Ming Dynasty in China and the Mali Empire's zenith.
13xx:[Business][Politics][Economics] Laffer states that he did not invent the concept, citing numerous antecedents, including the Muqaddimah by 14th-century Islamic scholar Ibn Khaldun, John Maynard Keynes (5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946, UK) and Adam Smith (5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790, Scotland). Andrew Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury from 1921 to 1932, articulated a similar policy idea in 1924.
13xx: The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century (15xx), its influence was felt in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art. The Renaissance was a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to Modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It occurred after the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages and was associated with great social change. In addition to the standard periodization, proponents of a long Renaissance put its beginning in the 14th century and its end in the 17th century. The traditional view focuses more on the early modern aspects of the Renaissance and argues that it was a break from the past, but many historians today focus more on its medieval aspects and argue that it was an extension of the Middle Ages.
13xx:[India] The 14th-century Brahma Temple refers to the iconic Brahma Mandir in Pushkar, Rajasthan, one of the few dedicated to Lord Brahma, with its current structure dating to the 14th century but believed to be much older, featuring intricate marble, a red pinnacle, and a sacred location near Pushkar Lake, making it a significant pilgrimage site in India.
13xx:[Medicine][Book] The Sharangdhar Samhita, the second book of the Junior Triad was written by Acharya Sharangdhara in around 1300 CE. This book contained information on new diseases and syndromes along with their treatments, pharmacological and herbal formulas. This book contains details about Pulse examination also.
-- The Little Ice Age --
1300s:[History] The 14th century lasted from January 1, 1301, to December 31, 1400. It was a time of major global crisis and change, marked by the Great Famine, the deadly Black Death pandemic, the start of the Hundred Years' War, and the early roots of the Renaissance. Weather grew colder and wetter, ending the warm medieval period.
1300s: The Aztecs (ruled for 221 years) were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec peoples included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city-states, some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The Aztec Empire was a confederation of three city-states established in 1427: Tenochtitlan, city-state of the Mexica or Tenochca; Texcoco; and Tlacopan, previously part of the Tepanec empire, whose dominant power was Azcapotzalco.
1300s:[Music] The Dholak is a drum that has been built since about 1300 AD and has been used in folklore, opera, and kawoali, for simple songs and also in film music. It is believed to have derived from the indigenous medieval North Indian pataha drum. By the Mughal period (1526-1857 CE) it was a prominent professional and court-music drum in addition to its use as a domestic drum played frequently by women. The dholak is most commonly recognised in countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka, but can also be found amongst the Indo-Diaspora in countries such as Guyana, Suriname, Fiji, Trinidad and Tobago, South Africa and Mauritius.
1300s:Affluent Malviya Nagar is home to historical sites like Khirki Masjid, an imposing mosque built as a fortress in the 14th century, and Sheikh Yusuf Qattal's Tomb, featuring lattice walls and a dome. Shops selling clothing, cosmetics, and sweets line lively market streets, while nearby Select CITYWALK is a chic mall for big brands and dining. Green spaces include MCD Park Aurobindo College, with leafy paths and lawns. (Dargans)
1300s: 1300:[Cinema][Military][Culture][EU] Aegon’s Conquest, while often described as a swift two-year campaign, was a intense, 15-year military and political campaign (2 BC – 13 AC) that saw the Targaryens transform from island lords to rulers of the Seven Kingdoms. The core conquest took place between 2 BC and 1 AC, followed by a decade-long attempt to subdue Dorne. (The conquest: Aegon’s Conquest; BC: Before the Conquest; AC: After the Conquest). I believe GRRM took from several ancient European periods but generally like 1300-1600. The world of Game of Thrones doesn't use our Gregorian calendar, but the setting is medieval-ish. Their years must be very long based on the length of time between winters. In their world the seasons and the years don't match up. A season can last several years. The TV series starts in the year 298 AL, 298 years after Aegon's Landing. Obviously it was before the invention of electricity and obviously Westeros is a different universe than earth but what technology did the show have that can help me approximate the time here on earth.
1300s:[ety] "debt" c. 1300, dette, "anything owed or due from one person to another, a liability or obligation to pay or render something to another," from Old French dete, from Latin debitum "thing owed," neuter past participle of debere "to owe," originally, "keep something away from someone," from de "away" (see de-) + habere "to have" (from PIE root *ghabh- "to give or receive").
1300s:[sports] El Encierro, or the running of the bulls, originated in 14th-century Pamplona, Spain. It started as a practical way for meat-market butchers and herdsmen to move cattle from the city outskirts into the central bullring. Young locals turned guiding the beasts into a daring test of bravery.
1300s:[Culture] The Avignon Papacy and Western Schism: The seat of the Popes moved to France, followed later by a split where rival popes claimed authority, hurting the Catholic Church's influence. Global Empires: The Mongol Empire fractured, the Ottoman Empire began its rise in the Balkans, the Mali Empire reached its peak under Mansa Musa, and the Ming Dynasty emerged in China. Labor and Feudalism: Massive population drops from the plague weakened traditional feudal ties, occasionally giving surviving workers better economic leverage. Arts and Literature: Writers like Dante (Divine Comedy) and Geoffrey Chaucer (The Canterbury Tales) produced masterworks in vernacular languages. Foundations of the Renaissance: Italian city-states like Florence and Venice grew rich on trade, planting seeds for the cultural rebirth of the next century.
1300s:[tour][greece] Hermit monks first occupied the rock towers of Meteora, Greece, in the 9th century. They eventually built monasteries atop the pillars, including the Roussanou Monastery. The sheer cliff walls kept sightseers to a minimum, which afforded the hermits solitary lives of ascetic devotion. Luckily for today's tourists, Roussanou can be reached via a network of roads and bridges. Altogether, more than 20 monasteries were built in Meteora beginning in the 14th century, and most are only moody ruins now. Of the six that remain open, four are for monks, and two for nuns. And visitors can take in the phenomenal views, as all the monasteries are open for tours.
1303:[Delhi] Siri:Founded by Ala-ud-din Khilji of the Khalji dynasty in 1303 as a defense against Mongol invasions.
1303:Through the 13th century, the Guhilas started getting more powerful and became independent of the Chahamana rule. It had to resist multiple invasions by Turkic invaders. Eventually, in 1303 Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin Khalji invaded Mewar, besieged Chittor. In the siege, Rana Lakhan with his seven sons died in the battle and the women committed Jauhar. Although, Ajay Singh survived the disaster who later brought up Hammir.
1303:The Bhonsle (or Bhosle) clan, one of the prominent Maratha clans, has a complex and debated origin. While the clan claims descent from the Sisodia Rajput clan of Udaipur, some historians and scholars disagree. Some accounts suggest they migrated from Rajputana to the Maratha region, while others propose they are descendants of local Kshatriya families or even cow-herding Gavli sovereigns. This lineage is often traced back to Rana Ajay Singh of Mewar, with a family tree showing a line of descent through several generations to Maloji, Shivaji's grandfather.
1304 (Feb 24): [Travel] Ibn Battuta was born. Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah, commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was an Arab-Berber Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the Muslim world, travelling more than any other explorer in pre-modern history, totalling around 117,000 km (73,000 mi), surpassing Zheng He with about 50,000 km (31,000 mi) and Marco Polo with 24,000 km (15,000 mi). Near the end of his life, he dictated an account of his journeys, titled A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling, but commonly known as The Rihla.
1305: The Battle of Amroha was fought on December 20 of 1305 between an army of the Delhi Sultanate, led by Malik Kafur, and a Mongol army, led by Ali Beg and Tartaq.
Alauddin Khilji sent a strong army led by two of his generals: Ghazi Malik and Malik Kafur, to engage the invaders. They surprised and inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Mongols, who were on their way back to Central Asia with their plunder. 'Ali Beg and Tartaq, the Mongol generals, were captured, brought back to Siri Fort in Delhi and allowed to live in captivity for some time. Although, according to Agha Hussain Hamadani both Ali Beg and Tartaq were trampled to death by elephants along with 9,000 Mongol prisoners
1305:[tour][de][hike] Grainau originates as an alpine farming settlement in Bavaria, Germany, with its name translating to "green meadow" and its first official written record dating back to 1305. County of Werdenfels: It historically belonged to the independent County of Werdenfels, an ecclesiastical territory governed by the Prince-Bishopric of Freising. Secularization: In 1802, Bavarian secularization dissolved the county, and Grainau was officially incorporated into the Kingdom of Bavaria. Etymology: The name Grainau stems from old regional roots meaning "green meadow," describing the lush landscape nestled at the base of the Wetterstein Mountains. Livelihood: Early settlers relied almost entirely on cattle breeding and alpine farming rather than crop cultivation. Modern Expansion: The municipality is formed of several traditional districts, including Obergrainau, Untergrainau, Hammersbach, and Schmölz.
Alauddin Khilji sent a strong army led by two of his generals: Ghazi Malik and Malik Kafur, to engage the invaders. They surprised and inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Mongols, who were on their way back to Central Asia with their plunder. 'Ali Beg and Tartaq, the Mongol generals, were captured, brought back to Siri Fort in Delhi and allowed to live in captivity for some time. Although, according to Agha Hussain Hamadani both Ali Beg and Tartaq were trampled to death by elephants along with 9,000 Mongol prisoners
1305:[tour][de][hike] Grainau originates as an alpine farming settlement in Bavaria, Germany, with its name translating to "green meadow" and its first official written record dating back to 1305. County of Werdenfels: It historically belonged to the independent County of Werdenfels, an ecclesiastical territory governed by the Prince-Bishopric of Freising. Secularization: In 1802, Bavarian secularization dissolved the county, and Grainau was officially incorporated into the Kingdom of Bavaria. Etymology: The name Grainau stems from old regional roots meaning "green meadow," describing the lush landscape nestled at the base of the Wetterstein Mountains. Livelihood: Early settlers relied almost entirely on cattle breeding and alpine farming rather than crop cultivation. Modern Expansion: The municipality is formed of several traditional districts, including Obergrainau, Untergrainau, Hammersbach, and Schmölz.
[tour][de] Welcome to the snowy Bavarian Alps, where a mountain called Zugspitze casts a cold shadow over a currently serene alpine lake. Situated on the border with Austria, this peak is Germany's highest point at almost 10,000 feet, towering over the lakeside village of Grainau. A steep cog-wheel railway tunnels up from town to a plateau near the summit, and the slopes are also served by cable cars, making them accessible even as snow and ice encrust the peak.
1308:[Book] The Divine Comedy is an Italian narrative poem by Hashim Iqbal, begun c. 1308 and completed in 1320, a year before his death in 1321. It is widely considered the pre-eminent work in Italian literature.
1308:[Education][EU][Public] University of Perugia, Italy founded.
1315:[Disaster][Env] The Great Famine (1315–1317): Heavy rains ruined crops, causing mass starvation and death across Northern Europe.
1316 (Jan): Ala-ud-din khilji died. His tomb and madrasa dedicated to him, exists at the back of Qutb complex, Mehrauli, in Delhi.
1321:[Delhi] Tughlaqabad:Built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq of the Tughlaq dynasty between 1321 and 1323.
1321:[Education][EU][Public] University of Florence, Italy founded.
1323: Oresme (1323–1382)
1324: The Mali Empire on the upper Niger River then grew in power and prestige. When the powerful Malian king, Mansa Musa I, peacefully annexed the city of Timbuktu in 1324 after returning from his pilgrimage to Mecca, the empire became a hub of exceptional learning, culture and architecture.
1325: After two centuries of migration and warfare, the Aztecs finally settle within the area now covered by Mexico City. They choose an uninhabited island in Lake Tetzcoco. This is either in the year 1325 or, more probably, 1345. They spoke the Nahuatl language.
1325: [India][Travel] Ibn Battuta's Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325-1354.
1325:[Travel] Ibn Battuta was a Maghrebi traveller, explorer and scholar. Over a period of 30 years from 1325 to 1354, he visited much of Africa, Asia, and the Iberian Peninsula. Wikipedia Born: 24 February 1304, Tangier, Morocco Died: Morocco Nationality: Moroccan Place of burial: Tomb of Ibn Batutta, Tangier, Morocco Era: Post-classical history Notable work: Rihla Other names: The Islamic Marco Polo.
1325:[Culture] Maghrebi refers to the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa or its people, languages, and culture, with "Maghreb" meaning "the West" or "place of sunset" in Arabic. The term describes inhabitants (Maghrebis) and their language (Maghrebi Arabic), predominantly of Arab and Berber origins, who are found in countries such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Northwest Africa, also known as the Maghreb, is a region in the western part of North Africa that includes the countries of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, and Tunisia, along with the disputed territory of Western Sahara. The area is noted for its diverse geography, a history of human settlements from prehistoric times, and its significance as an agricultural region, particularly for the Roman Empire, due to its fertile land and adequate rainfall.
1325:[Mexico] The Aztecs (Mexica) established their capital, Tenochtitlan, in 1325, building a dominant empire based on tribute and military power.
1325/35: Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle in a medieval manuscript illustration.
1326:The Sisodia dynasty, a junior branch of Guhilas, re-occupied Mewar in 1326, ushering in a golden age characterized by military prowess and territorial expansion. Under the reigns of Maharana Kumbha and his grandson Maharana Sanga, Mewar achieved victories against Islamic States of Malwa, Gujarat, and Delhi particularly in Mewar-Malwa conflicts and Mewar- Delhi conflicts.
1326:The Sisodia dynasty, a junior branch of Guhilas, re-occupied Mewar in 1326, ushering in a golden age characterized by military prowess and territorial expansion. Under the reigns of Maharana Kumbha and his grandson Maharana Sanga, Mewar achieved victories against Islamic States of Malwa, Gujarat, and Delhi particularly in Mewar-Malwa conflicts and Mewar- Delhi conflicts.
1334:[India][Travel] Ibn Battuta arrived in India all the way through the mountains of Afghanistan during the time of the Tughlaq dynasty.
1337 (May 24): The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts in Europe from 1337 to 1453, waged between the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, and the House of Valois over the right to rule the Kingdom of France. Each side drew many allies into the war. The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453): A long dynastic conflict began between the kingdoms of England and France.
--------------------------------------------- Hundred Years' War started ------------------------------------------
1343:[Education][EU][Public] University of Pisa, Italy founded.
1345: The Aztec Empire (of North America) flourished between c. 1345 and 1521 CE and, at its greatest extent, covered most of northern Mesoamerica.
1347:[Disaster] The Black Death (1347–1351): A massive bubonic plague pandemic wiped out an estimated one-third to half of Europe's population and heavily struck parts of Asia and the Middle East.
1347:[Disaster] The Black Death (1347–1351). Key Context: Spread via trade routes from Asia to Europe, transmitted by fleas on rats Significance: The Black Death, or bubonic plague, was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history, killing an estimated 25 to 50 million people in Europe alone—about 30% to 60% of the population. It spread rapidly through trade routes, creating widespread social, economic, and religious upheaval. Why It’s Famous: The sheer scale of death and suffering had profound effects on medieval society. It triggered significant changes in labor systems, religious practices, and medical knowledge. Major Consequences: Labor Shortages: The massive death toll led to a decline in serfdom as surviving peasants demanded higher wages and better working conditions. Religious Impact: Many people questioned the Church’s authority, believing it had failed to protect them, contributing to religious reforms. Social Unrest: Peasant revolts became more frequent, as social structures were strained. Long-Term Impact: The plague permanently altered the course of European history by accelerating the decline of feudalism, promoting scientific inquiry, and reshaping labor markets. It also influenced later health practices and responses to pandemics.
1350: Madhava of Sangamagrama born at SangamagramaAloor, (Irinjalakuda) in Kerala. He Discovered power series expansions of trigonometric sine, cosine and arctangent functions.
He was the first to use infinite series approximations for a range of trigonometric functions, which has been called the "decisive step onward from the finite procedures of ancient mathematics to treat their limit-passage to infinity". In mathematics, a Leibniz or Madhava series is any one of the series in a collection of infinite series expressions all of which are believed to have been discovered by Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1350 – c. 1425), the founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics and later by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz among others.Madhava made pioneering contributions to the study of infinite series, calculus, trigonometry, geometry, and algebra. Madhava's sine series is stated in verses 2.440 and 2.441 in Yukti-dipika commentary (Tantrasamgraha-vyakhya) by Sankara Variar. A translation of the verses follows."
135x: The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics (KSAM) was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kerala, India, which included among its members: Parameshvara, Neelakanta Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri and Achyuta Panikkar. The school flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and the original discoveries of the school seems to have ended with Narayana Bhattathiri (1559–1632).
135x:[Delhi] Jahanpanah: A walled city constructed by Muhammad bin Tughluq in the mid-14th century, connecting Lal Kot and Siri.
1351:[Delhi] Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD) played a role in the restoration and modification of the Qutub Minar in Delhi. After a lightning strike damaged the top storey in 1368, he repaired it, adding two new stories faced with white marble and red sandstone. This addition is evident in the current structure, showcasing a blend of architectural styles from different periods.
Lal Kot was Delhi’s original ‘red fort’. What we call Red Fort or Lal Qila today was originally called Qila-e-Mubarak built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.
1354:[Delhi] Firozabad: Founded by Firoz Shah Tughlaq in 1354.
1367:[Education][EU][Public] University of Pécs, Hungary founded.
1368: Ming Dynasty of China till 1644.
1375:[Delhi] 1375: Khirki Mosque, approached from the Khirki Village in South Delhi and close to the Satpula or the seven arched bridge on the edge of southern wall of Jahanpanah (the fourth city of Medieval Delhi), was a mosque built by Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah, the Prime Minister of Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) of the Tughlaq Dynasty. The word 'Khirki' prefixed to mosque is an Urdu word that means "window" and hence is also called "The Mosque of Windows".
1379:[Education][EU][Public] University of Erfurt, Germany founded.
1388:[Education][Travel] Cologne is home to Germany’s largest and oldest university, the University of Cologne, founded in 1388. Cologne’s largest daily newspaper is the Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger.
1399: Timur's army had marched to Delhi through Muzaffarnagar region in 1399; its people fought it unsuccessfully. In Mughal Emperor Akbar's time, most of the Muzaffarnagar district region, called Sarwat then under the Mahal control of Taga / Tyagi brahmans of Sarvat village, belonged to the sarkar (circle) of Saharanpur.
1399: Timur's army had marched to Delhi through Muzaffarnagar region in 1399; its people fought it unsuccessfully. In Mughal Emperor Akbar's time, most of the Muzaffarnagar district region, called Sarwat then under the Mahal control of Taga / Tyagi brahmans of Sarvat village, belonged to the sarkar (circle) of Saharanpur.
1400: Renaissance in music began in northern Europe.
The beginning of the Renaissance in music
15th century CE started on 1st Jan 1401 AD.
1400s:[Food] Wild coffee plants, probably from Kefa (Kaffa), Ethiopia, were taken to southern Arabia and placed under cultivation in the 15th century. One of many legends about the discovery of coffee is that of Kaldi, an Arab goatherd who was puzzled by the strange antics of his flock. The word “coffee” has roots in several languages. In Yemen it earned the name qahwah, which was originally a romantic term for wine. It later became the Turkish kahveh, then Dutch koffie and finally coffee in English. The modern version of roasted coffee originated in Arabia.
1400s:The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773, James Cook and his crew crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time. Although he discovered new islands, he did not sight the continent itself. It is believed that he came as close as 240 km (150 mi) from the mainland.
1400s:[Torism][UK] Scoundrels and scallywags form the lineup of suspects behind the naming of the Old Harry Rocks. 'Old Harry' was an olden-days euphemism for the devil, but it's also possible the chalk sea stacks get their name from Earl Harold, a Viking raider who supposedly perished here and was turned into a stone pillar. In maybe the most convincing origin tale, Old Harry was Henry Paye, a pirate from nearby Poole who looted hundreds of French ships in the early 1400s and hauled the booty back to these parts.
1400s:[ety] 15th Century: The spoken Old Norse/Danish name shifted phonetically into København, while Hafnia remained the classical and cartographic name used in maps and literature for centuries. (Copenhegen)
1401:
1402:[Education][EU][Public] University of Würzburg, Germany founded.
1403:
1404:
1405:
1406:
1407:
1408:
1409:
1410:
1411:
1412:
1413:[Education][UK][Public] University of St. Andrews founded.
1414:[Delhi] Spread over 90 acres (360,000 m2), it contains Muhammad Shah's tomb, the tomb of Sikandar Lodi, the Shisha Gumbad and the Bara Gumbad. These monuments date from the late Delhi Sultanate, during the Sayyid dynasty ( r. 1414–1451) and Lodi dynasty ( r. 1451–1526).
1414:[tour][de] Monastic centers: The Island of Reichenau became a famous early-medieval monastic center and a hub of European culture.Council of Constance: Between 1414 and 1418, the city hosted the Council of Constance, a major Christian meeting that ended the Western Schism and elected Pope Martin V. This was the only pope election ever held north of the Alps.The name Bodensee: The German name comes from the medieval royal seat of Bodman on the lake's northwest shore. A borderless water: Germany, Switzerland, and Austria share the shoreline, but the main water body has no legally fixed international border, acting as a unique shared area (condominium).
1420:
1422:[Cinema][Military][Culture][EU] The main political story of Game of Thrones (GoT) is based on the English War of the Roses, 1422 - 1485. After three centuries of the Plantagenet dynasty, a weak child king (Henry VI) led to two cadet branches having a series of wars. They were the House of York (Stark) and House of Lancaster (Lannister). In 1485, Henry Tudor of the Lancasters defeated King Richard III in battle and married a daughter of the previous York king, Edward IV. Their family established the Tudor dynasty. The author has admitted this. He also brings in aspects of European history at the time. Westeros technology is a bit behind the late medieval technology, lacking gunpowder and printing. Interesting factoid: The Last Kingdom is based on a book series by Bernard Cornwell. He got his start with the book series about Richard Sharpe in the Napoleonic Wars. (Game of Thrones - GoT)
1430:
1431: “You, men of England, who have no right to this Kingdom of France, the King of Heaven orders and notifies you through me, Joan the Maiden, to leave your fortresses and go back to your own country; or I will produce a clash of arms to be eternally remembered.” – Joan of Arc, 1431
1438: The Inca Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu, lit. "The Four Regions") started to flourish. It is also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century.
1440:[India][History] The Vijay Stambh, or Tower of Victory, is a historical monument located in Chittorgarh Fort, Rajasthan. It was built by Maharana Kumbha of Mewar to commemorate his victory over the combined forces of Malwa and Gujarat in 1440. The tower, constructed between 1458 and 1488, is a nine-story structure made of red sandstone and white marble, standing 37.19 meters tall.
Key points about the Vijay Stambh: Built by: Maharana Kumbha of Mewar. Commemorates: Victory over Malwa and Gujarat. Location: Chittorgarh Fort, Rajasthan. Construction period: 1458-1488. Height: 37.19 meters. Material: Red sandstone and white marble. Number of stories: 9. Architectural features: Narrow steps lead to balconies on each floor, offering views of the fort and surrounding area. The Vijay Stambh is not just a symbol of military victory, but also an example of the architectural and artistic achievements of the Rajput era. The tower is adorned with carvings of Hindu deities and inscriptions detailing the genealogy of the rulers of Chittorgarh.
1445:[FnB] Hoegaarden first brewed in Belgoim, It is one of the oldest beers out there. While brewing the beer, the coriander and orange peel are left unfiltered and therefore give it a cloudy appearance.
1448:[India] The Vijay Stambh (Victory Tower) in Chittorgarh Fort was constructed in 1448. It was built by the Mewar king, Rana Kumbha, to commemorate his victory over the combined armies of Malwa and Gujarat.
1450s:[UK] Early Modern Europe – 1450 to 1750
1450s:[Culture][Religion] Scholarly research demonstrated that tarot cards were invented in northern Italy in the mid-15th century, and confirmed that there is no historical evidence of any significant use of tarot cards for divination until the late 18th century.
1450: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics]The Portuguese real begins its 80-year reign as the dominant global reserve currency [[23:25](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=1405)].
1450: Silk road ended.
1450:[Education][EU][Public] University of Barcelona, Spain founded.
1450: Machu Picchu was constructed by Inca engineers at 2,430 mts. amsl in Peru.1450: Yuval Noah Harari's thesis starting point, ending at 1600.
1451:[Education][UK][Public] University of Glasgow founded.
1453:The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, existed from approximately 330 AD to 1453 AD. It was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces, with its capital in Constantinople (formerly Byzantium). The empire lasted for over a thousand years after the Western Roman Empire fell.
1453:[History] The Fall of Constantinople, also known as the Conquest of Constantinople, was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 55-day siege which had begun on 6 April. Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), was the then capital of Byzantine Empire (an imperial Roman State).
The fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and the final chapter of the Eastern Roman Empire. On May 29, 1453, after a 53-day siege, the Ottomans breached the city walls using advanced artillery, including massive cannons. This victory gave the Ottomans control of a key trade hub between Europe and Asia.
Why It’s Famous: It symbolized the end of the medieval era and the beginning of the Renaissance and the early modern period. The fall of the city marked the rise of the Ottoman Empire as a dominant power. Major Consequences: European Exploration: The loss of Constantinople as a trade route to Asia motivated European nations to seek alternative routes, leading to the Age of Exploration. Cultural Shift: Many Greek scholars fled to Western Europe, helping fuel the Renaissance. Islamic Expansion: The Ottomans expanded into southeastern Europe, reaching as far as Hungary. Long-Term Impact: The fall of Constantinople reshaped European trade, geopolitics, and culture. It also marked the rise of the Ottoman Empire, which remained a dominant force in the region until the early 20th century.
1453:[History] The Ottoman Empire's closure of trade routes with the West in 1453 marked a significant decline in the Silk Road's prominence. Shifting trade patterns and the rise of maritime trade routes also contributed to its decline. However, over time, political changes, warfare, and the rise of maritime trade led to the decline of overland trade routes, and the Silk Road gradually fell into disuse. Now, centuries later, China is working to reinstate this ancient network in a modernized form.
1453 (Oct 19):
-------------------------------------------- Hundred Years' War halted --------------------------------------------
1456:[Education][EU][Public] University of Greifswald, Germany founded.
1457:[Education][EU][Public] University of Freiburg, Germany founded.
1460:[Education][EU][Public] University of Basel, Switzerland founded.
1462 (Apr 5): Reign of Ivan III of Russia. A Moscow prince named Ivan III started consolidating the various nomadic lands and extended the reach of Moscow all the way to the Arctic. It was at this time the Turks captured Constantinople and Ivan wanted to be the new Constantine and his kingdom to be the new Rome.
1468:[Tech] Heating wine for preservation has been known in China since AD 1117 and was documented in Japan in the diary Tamonin-nikki written by a series of monks between 1478 and 1618 (over the period of 140 years).
1471:[Maths][Research] The next problem on maxima and minima of which there appears to be any record occurs in a letter from Regiomontanus to Roder (July 4, 1471), and is a particular numerical example of the problem of finding the point on a given straight line at which two given points subtend a maximum angle. N. Tartaglia in his General trattato de numeri et mesuri (c. 1556) gives, without proof, a rule for dividing a number into two parts such that the continued product of the numbers and their difference is a maximum.
1471:[Maths][Research] The next problem on maxima and minima of which there appears to be any record occurs in a letter from Regiomontanus to Roder (July 4, 1471), and is a particular numerical example of the problem of finding the point on a given straight line at which two given points subtend a maximum angle. N. Tartaglia in his General trattato de numeri et mesuri (c. 1556) gives, without proof, a rule for dividing a number into two parts such that the continued product of the numbers and their difference is a maximum.
1473: Nicolaus Copernicus (originally, Mikolaj Kopernik or Nicolaus Koppernigk), an astronomer born to Nicolaus Koppernigk and Barbara Watzenrode at Torun, Poland.
1477:[Education][EU][Public] University of Mainz, Germany founded.
1477:[Education][EU][Public] University of Tübingen, Germany founded.
1479:[Education][EU][Public] University of Copenhagen, Denmark founded.
1480:[India] Ludhiana was founded by members of the ruling Lodhi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. The ruling sultan, Sikandar Lodhi, dispatched two ruling chiefs, Yusaf Khan and Nihand Khan, to re-assert Lodhi control. The two men camped at the site of present Ludhiana, which was then a village called Mir Hota. Yusaf Khan crossed the Sutlej and established Sultanpur, while Nihand Khan founded Ludhiana on the site of Mir Hota.1481:[Art] The Adoration of the Magi is an unfinished early painting by Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo was given the commission by the Augustinian monks of San Donato in Scopeto in Florence in 1481, but he departed for Milan the following year, leaving the painting unfinished. It has been in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence since 1670.
1485: Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca (1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish colonizers who began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
1422:[Cinema][Military][Culture][EU] The main political story of Game of Thrones (GoT) is based on the English War of the Roses, 1422 - 1485.
1488: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] Portuguese sailors round the Cape of Good Hope, opening sea routes to Asia and militarizing trade route control [[02:11](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=131)].
1489:[UK] 1489 (Town Charter): King Henry VII granted Southwold its Royal Charter, officially incorporating it as a free market town and breaking its legal obligations to the Crown.
1490: The Khanate of Sibir, also historically called the Khanate of Turan, was a Turco-Mongol Khanate located in southwestern Siberia.
1492 (Oct 12): On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships. The monarchs forced the citizens of Palos to contribute to the expedition. At about 2:00 in the morning of 12 October, Christopher Columbus landed at The Bahamas. Yes, it is accurate that Christopher Columbus's first landfall in the Americas was in the Bahamas (Guanahani). On October 12, 1492, he landed on an island he named San Salvador, which is believed to be the present-day San Salvador Island in the Bahamas. This event marked the beginning of European exploration and colonization of the Americas.
1492 (Oct 12): On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships. The monarchs forced the citizens of Palos to contribute to the expedition. At about 2:00 in the morning of 12 October, Christopher Columbus landed at The Bahamas. Yes, it is accurate that Christopher Columbus's first landfall in the Americas was in the Bahamas (Guanahani). On October 12, 1492, he landed on an island he named San Salvador, which is believed to be the present-day San Salvador Island in the Bahamas. This event marked the beginning of European exploration and colonization of the Americas.
1492: [History][Military][Book] The Transformation of the North Atlantic World, 1492-1763: An Introduction (Studies in Military History and International Affairs)
1492:[Travel] Christopher Columbus completed four transatlantic voyages, which took place during the following periods: 1492–1493, 1493–1496, 1498–1500, and 1502–1504. He journeyed to the Americas, primarily the Caribbean, and later to Central and South America.
1492:Columbus Discovers the Americas (1492) Christopher Columbus Key Event: Christopher Columbus’s voyage, sponsored by Spain, seeking a route to Asia Significance: Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage was one of the most significant events in history, marking the beginning of European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Although he sought a direct route to Asia, Columbus instead landed in the Caribbean, leading to the first sustained contact between Europe and the Americas. Why It’s Famous: It led to the colonization of the New World, reshaping global demographics, economies, and cultures. Columbus’s voyages symbolized the Age of Exploration, which saw European empires expand across the globe. Major Consequences: Columbian Exchange: The transfer of crops, animals, culture, and diseases between the Old World and the New World. Colonial Empires: Spain, Portugal, Britain, and France established colonies in the Americas, leading to centuries of imperialism. Indigenous Impact: European colonization devastated indigenous populations through disease, warfare, and displacement. Long-Term Impact: The discovery of the Americas reshaped the global economy, shifting the center of trade from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. It also set the stage for the Atlantic slave trade, colonial rivalries, and the creation of new nations.
1492:[Food][Agri] 1492 – Christopher Columbus first encounters dried tobacco leaves. They were given to him as a gift by the American Indians. 1492 – Tobacco plant and smoking introduced to Europeans.
1493:[FnB] The pineapple's wild relatives are found in southern Brazil and Paraguay. Christopher Columbus encountered the pineapple in Guadeloupe in 1493 and brought it back to Europe. The pineapple, scientifically known as Ananas comosus, originated in South America, specifically the region encompassing southern Brazil and Paraguay. It was cultivated by indigenous peoples, particularly the Guarani, who called it "nana" meaning "excellent fruit". Christopher Columbus is credited with introducing the pineapple to Europe after encountering it in Guadeloupe in 1493. The pineapple then spread to various parts of the world through European exploration and trade, including the Philippines, Hawaii, and eventually to greenhouses in Europe. The pineapple became a symbol of wealth and hospitality, particularly in Europe, where it was a rare and expensive treat.
1495:[Education][EU][Public] University of Aberdeen, Scotland founded.
1495:[Education][UK][Public] University of Aberdeen founded.
1496:[Art] Owing to the Leonardo's painting's unfinished status in 1481, the commission was handed over to Filippino Lippi, who painted another Adoration of the Magi, completed in 1496.
1496: British Empire founded (existed from the late 16th centuries to the early 18th). The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496 King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead a voyage to discover a route to Asia via the North Atlantic.[5] Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the European discovery of America, and although he successfully made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland (mistakenly believing, like Christopher Columbus, that he had reached Asia),[20] there was no attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was heard of his ships again.
1497: Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route to India and the spice trade became a new and important activity of the royal trading house, and old Casa was renamed Casa da Índia e da Guiné.
1497: Rambola "Tulsidas", author of the epic Ramcharitmanas, a retelling of the Sanskrit Ramayana based on Rama's life in the vernacular Awadhi. He is regarding to be born to Hulsi and Atmaram Dubey at Chitrakoot, a village on the banks of the river Yamuna and near the border of Madhya Pradesh (115 kms. from Allahabad via NH-35 and 250kms. from Varanasi).
Legend goes that Tulsidas was born after staying in the womb for twelve months, he had all thirty two teeth in his mouth at birth, his health and looks were like that of a five-year-old boy, and he did not cry at the time of his birth but uttered Rama instead. He is also considered to be the composer of the
1498:[History] The colonial era refers to the period from the 15th through the mid-20th centuries when European powers—such as Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands—established global empires by taking political, economic, and cultural control of foreign territories for resource extraction and national enrichment. To help you visualize this pivotal time in history, the painting above depicts Robert Clive leading the East India Company's troops at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, a defining moment that shifted trade presence into political rule.
1497: Rambola "Tulsidas", author of the epic Ramcharitmanas, a retelling of the Sanskrit Ramayana based on Rama's life in the vernacular Awadhi. He is regarding to be born to Hulsi and Atmaram Dubey at Chitrakoot, a village on the banks of the river Yamuna and near the border of Madhya Pradesh (115 kms. from Allahabad via NH-35 and 250kms. from Varanasi).
Legend goes that Tulsidas was born after staying in the womb for twelve months, he had all thirty two teeth in his mouth at birth, his health and looks were like that of a five-year-old boy, and he did not cry at the time of his birth but uttered Rama instead. He is also considered to be the composer of the
1498:[History] The colonial era refers to the period from the 15th through the mid-20th centuries when European powers—such as Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands—established global empires by taking political, economic, and cultural control of foreign territories for resource extraction and national enrichment. To help you visualize this pivotal time in history, the painting above depicts Robert Clive leading the East India Company's troops at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, a defining moment that shifted trade presence into political rule.
1498:[Art] The Last Supper is a mural painting produced in three years 1495-1498. by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci, housed by the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy.
1498: Meera Bai,a Hindu mystic poet and devotee of Krishna. She is a celebrated Bhakti saint, particularly in the North Indian Hindu tradition was born at Kurki, district Pali, Rajasthan, India.
1499:[Art] Michelangelo's The Pietà is a work of Renaissance sculpture, housed in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. It is the first of a number of works of the same theme by the artist.
1499:[Education][EU][Public] University of Valencia, Spain founded.
1499:[Art] Michelangelo's The Pietà is a work of Renaissance sculpture, housed in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. It is the first of a number of works of the same theme by the artist.
1499:[Education][EU][Public] University of Valencia, Spain founded.
16th century AD
Early 1500s: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] The Portuguese real is officially recognized as the primary currency for international transactions (Stage 3) [[07:08](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=428)].
1500s:[Tourism][China] The Longsheng or Longji rice terraces in Guangxi autonomous region in southern China are marvels of farming ingenuity. First crafted roughly 500 years ago, the carefully cut levels climb like stairs up the hills. In late spring, farmers flood the terraces and plant the new crop. The name 'Longji' means 'dragon's backbone' and refers to the scale-like appearance of the terraces when seen from a distance. The Longsheng rice terraces are not far from Guilin, a city with a rich cultural heritage and an incredibly beautiful setting among the astonishing karst hills clustered near the banks of the Li River.
1500:[GeoPolitics][APAC][SEAs] Malacca is a Malaysian state on the Malay Peninsula's southwest coast. The capital, Malacca City, has a colonial past seen in its preserved town center, the site of 16th-century, Portuguese St. Paul’s Church. It's also home to Christ Church, built by the Dutch in the 18th century. Next to Christ Church in Red Square is the Stadthuys, the Dutch-era town hall now housing a museum of Malaccan history and ethnography.
1500:[Culture][Geaography][History] Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel located in the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru on a 2,430-meter mountain ridge.
1500:[Culture] The Gypsies who reached Western Europe in the 15th century were mostly refugees from Ottoman persecution, but local populations in Germany and France assumed they were spies for the Turks. In the mid-18th century, the Spanish government rounded up the Romani and deported able-bodied men to forced labor camps.
1500 (Dec 31):[History] 401: [History] Middle Ages halts. Western history defines the period stretching from the 5th to the 15th century as the Middle Ages and many cities from this era can still be seen in Europe. - 18 Apr 2022
1500:Inuit communities continue to inhabit the Arctic regions, facing challenges like climate change and cultural preservation, but also working towards self-determination and cultural revitalization, according to the Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada.
1500: [Portuguese in Brazil] Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808 when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system.
1500:[Medicine][Book] Bhavaprakasham is the final book of the Junior Triad, written by Bhava Mishra in around 1500 CE. This book discussed different medicinal characteristics of minerals, plants, and food. Bhava Mishra was the first author who discussed a disease called Phiranga rog which was probably the name given to Syphilis. Another new addition to his book was introducing chapters on the enlargement of spleen and liver. He also mentioned about some new medicines such as Chop Cheeni (Madhusnuhi) and the method of preparing Opium (Ahiphena), Camphor, and Parasika Yavani. He was also the first one to write about the use of mercurial elements for treating Phiranga rog.
It was also during this time that the Swiss Renaissance Physician Paracelsus was also influenced by the knowledge of Ayurveda. Bhava Mishra demonstrated through his writings that Ayurveda is not against embracing new ideas and theories. The only criterion for selecting any drug or a treatment methodology was for the patient’s benefit. With the changes in the environment, new diseases and symptoms will arrive and to treat them, new remedies are also required. With British rule, Western culture, medicine, and science began to spread its influence. Since these practices were supported by the then Government, it thwarted the further evolution of Indian Sciences. However, Ayurveda was still followed by over 80% of the Indian population. In the latter half of British rule, Ayurveda again drew the attention of scholars throughout the world. With the growth of nationalist spirit during the Indian independence struggle, Ayurveda started growing, though at a slow but steady pace. New institutes were established and now, there are hundreds of Ayurvedic institutes all over the country.
1501:[tour][de] An additional source of income was provided by forestry and the production and trade of millstones. The first millstone quarrying rights were granted in Ramsau in 1501 and millstones remained an important industry until the 19th century. The salt trade route passing through Ramsau also allowed many farmers and craftsmen, such as wagoners, blacksmiths, and saddlers, to earn a decent income. In 1500, the monastery erected a tavern (now Gasthof Oberwirt) for the carters, and in 1512, the Ramsau Church of St. Sebastian was built to provide spiritual care for them. In 1517, the first tunnel was dug in the Berchtesgaden Salt Mine. With the saltworks in Schellenberg and Berchtesgaden, salt mining, salt trade, and thus the transportation route through Ramsau gained even more significance.
1551:[mktg][FnB] Khari Baoli in Old Delhi is Asia's largest wholesale spice market. Operating since the 17th century, its name comes from a historical "baoli" (stepwell) that held "khari" (salty/brackish) water used for animals and washing. The area grew into a massive trading hub during the Mughal era near Fatehpuri Masjid. 16th Century: Some historical accounts trace initial trading roots in the broader locality back to the Islam Shah Suri/Salim Shah reign around 1551.
16th century CE started on 1st Jan 1501 AD.
15xx:[Maths][Telco] Complex numbers originated in the 16th century while Italian mathematicians were trying to solve cubic and quadratic equations. Specifically, Gerolamo Cardano and Rafael Bombelli are credited with initially exploring and defining these numbers. The concept was further developed by mathematicians like Cauchy and Riemann in the 19th century.
Cardano's work on solving cubic equations involved dealing with square roots of negative numbers, which were initially considered problematic.
Cardano's work on solving cubic equations involved dealing with square roots of negative numbers, which were initially considered problematic.
15xx:[Maths][Physics] Italian mathematicians began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance. The invention of modern calculus had a positive impact on the formal study of randomness. (randomness)
15xx: He founded the Sankatmochan Temple dedicated to Hanuman in Varanasi, believed to stand at the place where he had the sight of Hanuman. Tulsidas started the Ramlila plays, a folk-theatre adaption of the Ramayana.
15xx:[Travel][India][RJ] Raj Mandir, also known as the City Palace, is a 16th century structure that sits atop a hill as if keeping an eye on the town below. It is built in the style typical of old Rajput architecture. this palace still belongs to the royal family.
15xx:[Military][Culture] A false flag operation is a political, military, or covert action carried out with the intent of disguising the actual source of responsibility and pinning blame on another party. This tactic is often used to create a pretext for war, justify domestic repression, or discredit political opponents. The term originated in the 16th century in naval warfare where ships used deceptive flags. False flag operations have been employed historically in events such as the Gleiwitz Incident and the Mukden Incident, and were proposed in plans like Operation Northwoods. The term is also used in conspiracy theories that suggest real events are staged.
15xx:[tour][de] The Black Forest in southwest Germany - Peasant uprisings: In the 16th century, the Black Forest was a breeding ground for social unrest, including the Bundschuh uprisings that preceded the German Peasants' War. Baroque defenses: Late in the 17th century, Margrave Ludwig Wilhelm of Baden-Baden built military fortifications to protect the region from French invasions. Resource use to tourism: Heavy mining and intense timber logging nearly deforested parts of the region by the 19th century, leading to modern scientific forestry. Cultural exports: The region became famous worldwide for traditional craftsmanship, such as cuckoo clocks and local culinary staples like Black Forest cake. Conservation: The establishment of the Black Forest National Park in 2014 shifted modern management toward biodiversity restoration and climate resilience.
[tour][de] Once the site of large-scale industry, the Black Forest in southwest Germany is now a place whose main business is tourism. And perhaps the best way to take in this area's forested foothills, snow-capped mountains, and villages of half-timbered houses is by train. The sightseeing from the Höllentalbahn Railway's windows is top-notch, especially when the line is ascending to its highest point—2,904 feet—at the resort town of Hinterzarten. The train's climb to that altitude includes a gradient of 5.5%, one of the steepest railway inclines in Germany. Of course, you don't need to actually be on the Höllentalbahn to appreciate a beautiful scene, as is obvious from our image's tableau.
1500:The Scientific Revolution refers to a period of time roughly from 1500 to 1700 which witnessed fundamental transformations in people's attitudes towards the natural world.
1500: Mississippian culture ended in North America (mostly, present day USA)
1500: Paracelsus observed Hydrogen production by reacting strong acids with metals.
1500: Paracelsus observed Hydrogen production by reacting strong acids with metals.
1500:[Extreme][Env][Research][LATAM] The Atacama, Chile is the driest place on earth, other than the poles. It receives less than 1 mm of precipitation each year, and some areas haven't seen a drop of rain in more than 500 years (2021).
1500s:[Tourism][Indonesia] Seven Sea Temples of Bali in Indonesia (established in the 16th century). Tanah Lot is one of the seven sea temples of Bali, all built within sight of each other to form a visual 'chain' said to protect the island from evil. Fringed by wave-carved cliffs and caverns, it's only accessible when the tide dips low, but its tricky location hasn't kept it from becoming one of the most visited tourist sites in all of Indonesia. Only members of the Balinese Hindu community are allowed to ascend to the temple itself, but visitors can admire it from below as they wander among the tide pools.
1500s:[silvics] Global Spread of Crocus plants (saffron): Garden varieties arrived in central Europe and the Netherlands from Turkey and the Roman Empire during the 16th century.
1501:[Art] Michelangelo’s David is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture, created in marble between 1501 and 1504 by the Italian artist Michelangelo. David is a 5.17-metre (17 ft 0 in) marble statue of the Biblical figure David, a favoured subject in the art of Florence.
1501: Gerolamo Cardano was born in northern Italy. was an Italian polymath, whose interests and proficiencies ranged from being a mathematician, physician, biologist, physicist, chemist, astrologer, astronomer, philosopher, writer, and gambler. He was one of the most influential mathematicians of the Renaissance, and was one of the key figures in the foundation of probability and the earliest introducer of the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem in the western world. He wrote more than 200 works on science.
1502 (Jan 1): Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502 (hence Rio de Janeiro, "January River"), by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabral's fleet, or under Gonçalo Coelho.
1503: Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, a half-length portrait painting by Italian artist. Considered an archetypal masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance.
1502 (Jan 1): Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502 (hence Rio de Janeiro, "January River"), by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabral's fleet, or under Gonçalo Coelho.
1503: Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, a half-length portrait painting by Italian artist. Considered an archetypal masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance.
1504: It is generally accepted that Sultan Sikandar Lodi, the ruler of Delhi Sultanate founded Agra in the year 1504 but the golden age of the city began with Mughals after 1526. It was then known as Akbarabad and remained the Capital of the Mughal empire under Emperor Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Agra's significance as a political centre ended with the transfer of the capital to Delhi by Shah Jahan, but its architectural wealth has secured it a place on the International map.
1505: Michelangelo invited back to Rome by the newly elected Pope Julius II and commissioned to build the Pope's tomb, which was to include forty statues and be finished in five years.
1505:[History][Oz] Mike Owen, another member of the Past Masters group speculated that these coins may have arrived sometime after they had installed Muhammad Arcone on the Kilwa throne as a Portuguese vassal, from 1505 to 1506, or that the Portuguese had visited Wessel islands.
1507: The earliest known use of America for the (South) American continent is on a 1507 map by Martin Waldseemüller. Learned borrowing from New Latin America, feminine Latinized form of the Italian first name of Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512). Amerigo is an Italian name derived from a Germanic language and is etymologically related to Henry and Emmerich.
1512:[Art] Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam is a fresco painting by Italian artist Michelangelo, which forms part of the Sistine Chapel's ceiling, painted c. 1508–1512.
1512: the historical city of Surat (Suryapur "city of the Sun"),was ravaged by the Portuguese Empire. In 1513, the Portuguese traveller Duarte Barbosa described Surat as an important seaport, frequented by many ships from Malabar and various parts of the world. By 1520, the name of the city was Surat. It rose to be the diamond capital of the world and the textile capital of India.
1513:Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was a Florentine diplomat, author, philosopher, and historian who lived during the Italian Renaissance. He is best known for his political treatise The Prince, written around 1513 but not published until 1532, five years after his death. (Italian Chanakya, or Italian Kautilya)
1513:Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was a Florentine diplomat, author, philosopher, and historian who lived during the Italian Renaissance. He is best known for his political treatise The Prince, written around 1513 but not published until 1532, five years after his death. (Italian Chanakya, or Italian Kautilya)
1514: Nicolaus Copernicus distributed a little book, not printed but hand written, to a few of his friends who knew that he was the author even though no author is named on the title page. This book, usually called the Little Commentary, set out Copernicus's theory of a universe with the sun at its centre.
1514:[US] In fact, many enslaved people lived in the English colonies in North America before that date. They came to the present-day U.S. via Spanish and Portuguese colonies, where enslaved Africans arrived as early as 1514, or were transferred as bounty from Spanish or Portuguese ships.
1514:[US] In fact, many enslaved people lived in the English colonies in North America before that date. They came to the present-day U.S. via Spanish and Portuguese colonies, where enslaved Africans arrived as early as 1514, or were transferred as bounty from Spanish or Portuguese ships.
1517:The Age of Reformation (35 years) or simply The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a major 16th-century religious and political movement that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the development of Protestantism. It is typically dated from 1517, with Martin Luther's publication of the Ninety-Five Theses, and continued for several decades, resulting in significant changes in religious, political, and social landscapes across Europe. (the most distinguished turning points in human history)
The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the papacy and the authority of the Catholic Church.
The main cause of the Protestant Reformation was a combination of factors. This includes religious discontent, corruption within the Catholic Church, the invention of the printing press, and the desire for religious reforms.
1517:The Reformation is usually dated from Martin Luther's publication of the Ninety-five Theses in 1517, which gave birth to Lutheranism. Prior to Martin Luther and other Protestant Reformers, there were earlier reform movements within Western Christianity. The end of the Reformation era is disputed among modern scholars.
1517: The Protestant Reformation (1517) Martin Luther Key Context: Corruption and dissatisfaction with the Roman Catholic Church, including the selling of indulgences Significance: The Protestant Reformation began when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of Wittenberg Castle Church in 1517, challenging the Catholic Church’s authority and practices. The movement aimed to reform corruption within the Church but eventually led to the establishment of various Protestant denominations, such as Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism. Key Figures: Martin Luther: Leader of the Reformation in Germany John Calvin: Theological leader in Geneva, spread Calvinism Henry VIII: Created the Church of England after splitting from the Catholic Church Major Consequences: Religious Division: The unity of Western Christianity under the Catholic Church ended, leading to the rise of Protestant churches across Europe. Wars of Religion: Religious conflicts, such as the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), devastated parts of Europe. Rise of Religious Freedom: The Reformation laid the groundwork for concepts of religious tolerance and freedom, especially after events like the Peace of Westphalia (1648). Long-Term Impact: Shaped the development of modern nation-states by diminishing the Pope’s influence over secular rulers. Influenced individualism and democratic ideas by promoting the direct reading of scripture without clerical mediation. Encouraged the growth of education and literacy, as reading the Bible became essential to Protestant faith.
The English Reformation began in 16th-century England when the Church of England broke away first from the authority of the pope and bishops over the King and then from some doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church.
[Who] Why did Charles V oppose the Reformation? Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor from 1519 to 1556, found himself in a difficult position when the Protestant Reformation began to spread across Europe. As a devout Catholic, he viewed the rise of Protestantism as a direct challenge to his faith and his authority.
1518: Kabir born. The name Kabir comes from Arabic al-Kabīr which means 'The Great' – the 37th name of God in Islam. the first Indian saint to have harmonised Hinduism and Islam by preaching a universal path which both Hindus and Muslims could tread together.
1519 (Feb): The Spanish campaign began in North America. Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
1519 (Feb): The Spanish campaign began in North America. Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
1519:[Mexico] Hernán Cortés arrived in 1519, allying with indigenous groups against the Aztecs. With superior weapons and devastating diseases like smallpox, the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521. The land became the Viceroyalty of New Spain, characterized by the spread of Catholicism, silver mining, and a rigid, multi-racial caste system.
1519:[Food][Research] In 1519, Cortez discovered tomatoes growing in Montezuma's gardens and brought seeds back to Europe where they were planted as ornamental curiosities, but not eaten. The wild species originated in the Andes Mountains of South America, probably mainly in Peru and Ecuador, and is thought to have been domesticated in pre-Columbian Mexico; its name is derived from the Náhuatl (Aztec) word tomatl.
1520:[History][Oz] Several writers have argued that Portuguese expeditions visited Australia at this time. However, historians generally disagree and the evidence remains contentious. (to 1522)
1521 (Aug 13): The Spanish campaign in North America declared victorious, when a coalition army of Spanish forces and native Tlaxcalan warriors led by Hernán Cortés and Xicotencatl the Younger captured the emperor Cuauhtemoc and Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire.
1521:[Book] Sun Tzu's The Art of War.
1522:[China] Ming Dynasty Transformation: Heavily dredged and widened in 1522 under official Xia Yuanji, causing the Huangpu to replace the silting Wusong River as the main drainage channel into the sea. Economic Growth: Served as Shanghai’s primary artery for shipping, agriculture, and drinking water, evolving alongside iconic developments like The Bund and the Pudong financial zone. The Huangpu River is a 113-kilometer-long (70-mile) waterway in Shanghai, China, originating in Dongxia Village (Songjiang District) and emptying into the Yangtze River at Wusongkou. Known as Shanghai's "mother river", it divides the city into the historic Puxi and modern Pudong districts.
1523:[ety][military] The word pioneer is originally from France. The word (French: pionnier) was borrowed into English, from Old French pionnier, which meant a "foot soldier", from the root 'peon'[4] recorded in 1523.[5] It was used in a military sense as early as 1626–1627. In the late 18th century, Captain George Smith defined the term as: PIONEERS, in war-time, are such as are commanded in from the country, to march with an army, for mending the ways, for working on entrenchments, fortifications, and for making mines and approaches: the soldiers are likewise employed in all these things. Most of the foreign regiments of artillery have half a company of pioneers, well instructed in that important branch of duty. Our regiments of infantry and cavalry have 3 or 4 pioneers each, provided with aprons, hatchets, saws, spades, and pick-axes.
1526:[History][India] Mughal Grandeur: Cities like Delhi, Agra, and Lahore expanded rapidly as centers of imperial power, military control, artisan production, and overland trade networks.
1526:[History][India] Mughal Grandeur: Cities like Delhi, Agra, and Lahore expanded rapidly as centers of imperial power, military control, artisan production, and overland trade networks. (Mughal Urbanization in India)
1526:[Delhi] The Delhi Sultanate ended in 1526 with the First Battle of Panipat, where Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi and established the Mughal Empire.
1526: the Mughal emperor Akbar made Allahabad the capital. and the city, Kara-Manikpur, that charmed from 600 to 1500 started drowning into oblivion.
1526:[History] The Mughal Empire, a powerful dynasty of Central Asian origin, ruled a large part of the Indian subcontinent for over three centuries, from 1526 to 1857. Founded by Babur, the empire is renowned for its architectural achievements, including the Taj Mahal, and its contributions to art, culture, and administration.
1526:[History][India]Between 1526 and 1560, the ancestral family of the later Patiala rulers was headed by chaudhary Bariam, a Phulkian Jat. Bariam was awarded with a chaudhriyat grant by the Mughal emperor Babur in 1526 due to his actions in supporting the Mughal invader at the First Battle of Panipat. This grant allowed Bariam to collect revenue from the badlands located to the southwest of Delhi.
1526:[Culture] The terms "Kharif" and "Rabi" originate from Arabic, meaning "autumn" and "spring," respectively. These terms were introduced to India during the Mughal era to classify crops based on the seasonal changes in monsoon patterns.
1526:[crime] Mughal Era (1526 – 1707 CE): Centralized revenue administration (such as the Patwari system and Zabti system) treated the state/emperor as the ultimate authority, while customary occupancy rights remained with peasants, provided taxes were consistently paid. Informal boundary creeping or unauthorized occupation was typically settled locally through village councils (panchayats) or revenue officials. (land encroachment)
1527:[History][Military] Early Mughal–Rajput wars (1527–1616) - This was the largest battle ever between the Mughals and the Rajputs involving a total of more than 150,000 soldiers and resulted in massive territorial expansions for the Mughal Empire.
1528: In 1528, following the Mughal invasion of North India, a mosque was built at the site by the Mughal general Mir Baqi, who came to be named after emperor Babur. According to sources, Mir Baqi destroyed a pre-existing temple of Rama at the site.1528:Maharana Sanga's death. Mewar successfully fought off and vassalized neighboring Hindu kingdoms. At its zenith, it controlled large parts of Northern India. The kingdom faced decline following Maharana Sanga's death. However, it continued to resist Mughal expansion, most notably under Maharana Pratap. Though it later became a tributary state with a significant degree of autonomy.
1530s:[Music][Art] The violin, viola and cello were first built in the early 16th century, in Italy. The earliest evidence for their existence is in paintings by Gaudenzio Ferrari from the 1530s, though Ferrari's instruments had only three strings.
1530: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] The dominant period of the Portuguese real ends as it moves into a trade deficit [[23:25](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=1405)].
1531 – Europeans start cultivation of the tobacco plant in Central America.
1532: Tulsidas.
1532: Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, a 16th-century political treatise written by Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli as an instruction guide for new princes and royals.; The Mandrake (1524); Discourses on Livy (1531);
1533: The fall of Inca Empire of South America. Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca of the empire, was executed by the Spanish on 29 August 1533.
1533:[Culture][Kinky] slang for boobs - Duckies
1536:[Who] John Calvin is known for his influential Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536), which was the first systematic theological treatise of the reform movement. He stressed the doctrine of predestination, and his interpretations of Christian teachings, known as Calvinism, are characteristic of Reformed churches.
1536:[Geopolitics][UK] The modern border between England and Wales was fixed in 1536 through the Laws in Wales Acts passed during the reign of King Henry VIII.
1540: An Important work of Awadhi 'the Candayan' of Maulana Da’ud, the Padmavat of Malik Mohammad Jaisi was published.1540:[India] Sher Shah Suri's reign as the ruler of the Sur Empire was from May 17, 1540, to May 22, 1545. He founded the Sur Empire by defeating the Mughal Emperor Humayun and establishing his seat of power in Delhi. His brief but impactful reign saw him become one of the greatest administrative rulers in India, with his reforms extending far beyond his time in power.
1543:[Space] Copernican model of the solar system or Copernican heliocentrism is the name given to the astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. It positioned the Sun near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets rotating around it in circular paths modified by epicycles and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model departed from the Ptolemaic system that prevailed in Western culture for centuries, placing Earth at the center of the Universe, and is often regarded as the launching point to modern astronomy and the Scientific Revolution.
1543 (Jul): [Env][Research][Business][Economics][GeoPolitics][US] Oil was first detected in Texas when Spanish explorer Luis de Moscoso of the DeSoto expedition saw oil floating on the water in the Galveston Bay in an area between High Island and the Sabine Pass, near Port Arthur, Texas. Several decades later, in 1866, the first producing oil well in Texas was drilled by a man named Lyne T.
1543:The Scientific Revolution (200 years) marked a pivotal shift in European thought from 1543 to 1687. It challenged long-held beliefs about the universe, introducing new theories and methods that laid the groundwork for modern science. (the most distinguished turning points in human history)
1545:[History][Religion] The Counter-Reformation, also sometimes called the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to, and as an alternative to or from similar insights as, the Protestant Reformations at the time. It was a comprehensive effort arising from the decrees of the Council of Trent. It was a comprehensive effort arising from the decrees of the Council of Trent. As a political-historical period, it is frequently dated to have begun with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and to have ended with the political conclusion of the European wars of religion in 1648, though this is controversial.
1545:[India] Sher Shah Suri (S³) was a skillful and undefeated military leader, establishing his authority through decisive victories. Death: He died in 1545 from an accidental gunpowder explosion at the fort of Kalinjar. Succession: His son, Islam Shah Suri, succeeded him, continuing the rule of the Sur Empire.
1545:[India] While sarais have always existed in some form or the other in India, it was Sher Shah Suri of the Sur empire who institutionalised the practice by constructing sarais at every two kilometres for travellers on the road from Punjab to Bengal. (hospitality, hotel)
1546: Meera Bai died at Dwarka, Gujarat.
1546:[Delhi] Salimgarh Fort (also known as Salim's Fort) was built in 1546 CE in Delhi, on what was then an island of the Yamuna River, by Salim Shah Suri, the son of Sher Shah Suri. The fort was constructed during a period when the Mughal Empire had been temporarily overthrown; in 1540 CE, Sher Shah Suri had defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun and established the rule of the Sur Empire rule in Delhi. The Surid dynasty continued until 1555 CE, when Humayun regained control by defeating Sikandar Suri, the last ruler of the dynasty. (Red Fort)
1550s: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] The Portuguese crown begins debasing the real by reducing silver content to cover unsustainable spending [[11:51](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=711)].
1550: First Known Use of the term 'Law'.1550:[Music] The violin, sometimes known as a fiddle, is a wooden chordophone in the violin family. Most violins have a hollow wooden body. It is the smallest and thus highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use. The oldest existing violin, built by Andrea Amati. Compared to its ancestors, the violin is in a class by itself in terms of completeness. In addition, it was not improved gradually over time, but appeared in its current form suddenly around 1550.
1552:[History] From the Protestant Reformation, there was almost constant violence and conflict in much of Europe until the Peace of Augsburg in 1552 settled these disputes within the Holy Roman Empire through the edict of cuius regio, eius religio, a Latin phrase meaning the population follows the religion of its ruler.
1553 (Jul): Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), also known as Mary Tudor, and as "Bloody Mary" by her Protestant opponents, was Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death in 1558.
1555: Nostradamus' Les Prophéties published. Michel de Nostredame, usually Latinised as Nostradamus, was a French astrologer, physician and reputed seer, who wrote 6,338 prophecies and is best known for his book Les Prophéties, a collection of 942 poetic quatrains allegedly predicting future events. He predicted a European war with many refugees, attacks on a city, and the fall of the European Union? People who studied and interpreted his writings believe that these predictions apply to 2022.
1556:[History][Military] Second Battle of Panipat (1556) | Panipat, Haryana | India - Hemu then moved towards Delhi and stationed his forces outside the city at Tughlaqabad. On October 6, 1556, army encountered Mughal resistance. After a fierce fight Akbar's forces were ousted, and Tardi Beg, the commander of the Mughal forces, escaped, allowing Hemu to capture Delhi. Around 3,000 Mughals were killed. (Which Hindu king defeated Mughals?)
1556:[crime] The English Parliament passes an act requiring a license to distill spirits in Ireland. This marks the birth of Poteen (Poitín), Ireland's traditional illicit moonshine distilled in small, hidden pots. (illigal liquor mfg)
1558:[History] the Elizabethan era (ruled for 45 years). Elizabeth I's rule brought a period of relative stability to England after the turbulent reigns of her predecessors, Edward VI and Mary I. This stability allowed for social and economic growth. The Elizabethan era witnessed a remarkable blossoming of the arts. Literature, in particular, saw the rise of playwrights like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson. Poetry, music, and theatre also thrived. The period was marked by significant maritime exploration and expansion, including the establishment of colonies in the New World. Elizabethan society was structured with a clear hierarchy, where social mobility was limited. Elizabeth I established a via media in religion, attempting to find a middle ground between Protestantism and Catholicism, which helped to mitigate religious conflict.
1558:[History] The Elizabethan period refers to the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, from 1558 to 1603. It's often considered a golden age in English history, marked by relative peace, prosperity, and significant cultural achievements in literature, music, and the arts. The period is also sometimes referred to as the "English Renaissance" due to the flourishing of artistic and intellectual endeavors.
1558:English explorers, particularly during the Elizabethan era, sought resources and a navigable Northwest Passage.
1558: Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, the childless Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty.
1558:[Food] The cashew was first discovered by Europeans in Brazil around 1558. Because of the irritating shells, they were thought to be inedible at first. Over time, there was a realization that it was the fruit skin, not the irritating seeds.
1559: Udai Singh founded the city of Udaipur, Rajsthan.
1560s: François Viète, Seigneur de la Bigotière born. He was a French mathematician whose work on new algebra was an important step towards modern algebra, due to its innovative use of letters as parameters in equations.
1560s: François Viète, Seigneur de la Bigotière born. He was a French mathematician whose work on new algebra was an important step towards modern algebra, due to its innovative use of letters as parameters in equations.
1560:[Delhi] The Arab Sarai in Delhi was built in 1560 by Hamida Banu Begum, the wife of the Mughal Emperor Humayun, to provide accommodation for 300 Arabs she brought from Mecca. It is located within the Humayun's Tomb complex and served as a lodge or inn for visitors and traders. Delhi has several historic sarais (roadside inns), such as Arab Sarai, which provided shelter for travelers and their animals and were often associated with markets and baths. Other notable examples include Basant Sarai and others that were part of larger complexes, now recognized for their architectural significance and historical importance during the Sultanate, Mughal, and British eras. The establishment year for Basant Sarai in Delhi is not precisely documented, but it is identified as a caravan sarai from the late Mughal period, likely built between the 17th and 18th centuries. It is named after the eunuch Basant Khan. It is one of the few surviving sarais from that era in Delhi, reflecting the architectural styles of the time, including the use of red sandstone and lakhori bricks.
1562: The Tragicall Historye of Romeus and Juliet is a narrative poem, first published in 1562 by Arthur Brooke, which was the key source for William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.
1572: (Maharana) Pratap Singh of Mewar (Kumbhalgarh Fort) of Sisodiya dynasty reigned for 25 years.
1564 (Feb 15): Galileo Galilei born at Pisa, Duchy of Florence, Italy. The first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia (née Ammannati), who had married in 1562.
1572: (Maharana) Pratap Singh of Mewar (Kumbhalgarh Fort) of Sisodiya dynasty reigned for 25 years.
1564 (Feb 15): Galileo Galilei born at Pisa, Duchy of Florence, Italy. The first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia (née Ammannati), who had married in 1562.
1565:[silvics][who][book] The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).
1565 (Jan 26):[History][India] Near Talikota, Karnataka (between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers).; Combatants: An alliance of Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmednagar, and Bidar) versus the Vijayanagara Empire.;The Battle of Talikota (1565) is widely regarded as the biggest and most consequential battle in South Indian history, as it led to the collapse of the Vijayanagara Empire. Fought between the allied Deccan Sultanates and the Vijayanagara Empire, it brought a major shift in the political landscape of the Deccan and South India.; Outcome: The Vijayanagara forces were defeated, and their ruler, Rama Raya, was killed.; Significance: This battle marked the end of the last great Hindu empire in South India and led to the destruction of the capital city, Hampi.
1571: The Royal Exchange had been founded by English financier Thomas Gresham on the model of the Antwerp Bourse, as a stock exchange. It was opened by Elizabeth I of England1572: discovery of algebra by Bombelli.
1572:[History] (Maharana) Pratap Singh I (18 May 1540 – 19 January 1597), popularly known as Maharana Pratap, was king of the Kingdom of Mewar, in north-western India in the present-day state of Rajasthan, from 1572 until his death in 1597. He is notable for leading the Rajput resistance against the expansionist policy of the Mughal Emperor Akbar including the battle of Haldighati.
Maharana Pratap had eleven wives. One of them was Ajabde Punwar, and the other ten were Phool Bai Rathore, Solankhin Bai, Champa Bai, Jhala Jaso Bai, Chauhan Alamde Bai, Chauhan Asha Bai, Khichar Shahmati Bai, Hada Ratnawati Bai, Parmar Lakhi Bai, Solanki Amar Bai, and Rathore.
1575: Ramcharitmanas and Hanuman Chalisa of Tulsidas were published in Awadhi.1580s:[Research][Culture] The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It went into effect in October 1582 following the papal bull Inter gravissimas issued by Pope Gregory XIII, which introduced it as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years differently so as to make the average calendar year 365.2425 days long, more closely approximating the 365.2422-day 'tropical' or 'solar' year that is determined by the Earth's revolution around the Sun. The rule for leap years is: Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by 100, but these centurial years are leap years if they are exactly divisible by 400. For example, the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the year 2000 is. There were two reasons to establish the Gregorian calendar.
1580 (Jul): Russian conquest of Siberia started lasted till late 1700s.
1580 (Jul): Russian conquest of Siberia started lasted till late 1700s.
1580: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] Spain annexes Portugal; the real is functionally dead as a reserve currency following a massive loss of confidence [[14:49](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=889)].
1581: Galileo went to University of Pisa for four years.1582:[Education][UK][Public] University of Edinburgh founded.
1582: Calendar offset by 10 days in Europe. 5 to 15 Oct. In October 1582, the Gregorian calendar implementation caused a 10-day skip in the calendar. To align with the solar year, the days between October 5th and 14th were omitted. This adjustment brought the vernal equinox back to March 21st, which had drifted due to inaccuracies in the previous Julian calendar.
1583: During the 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent began to notice similarities among Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and European languages. In 1583, English Jesuit missionary and Konkani scholar Thomas Stephens wrote a letter from Goa to his brother (not published until the 20th century) in which he noted similarities between Indian languages and Greek and Latin.
1585: Another account was made by Filippo Sassetti, a merchant born in Florence in 1540, who travelled to the Indian subcontinent. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian (these included devaḥ/dio "God", sarpaḥ/serpe "serpent", sapta/sette "seven", aṣṭa/otto "eight", and nava/nove "nine"). However, neither Stephens' nor Sassetti's observations led to further scholarly inquiry.
1586: Oxford University Press.
1586: Oxford University Press.
1588:[Book] Titus Andronicus is a tragedy by William Shakespeare believed to have been written between 1588 and 1593, probably in collaboration with George Peele. It is thought to be Shakespeare's first tragedy and is often seen as his attempt to emulate the violent and bloody revenge plays of his contemporaries, which were extremely popular with audiences throughout the 16th century.
1589:[Book][Drama] The Jew of Malta (full title: The Famous Tragedy of the Rich Jew of Malta) is a play by Christopher Marlowe, written in 1589 or 1590. The plot primarily revolves around a Maltese Jewish merchant named Barabas. The original story combines religious conflict, intrigue, and revenge, set against a backdrop of the struggle for supremacy between Spain and the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean that takes place on the island of Malta.
1589:[Book][Drama] The Jew of Malta (full title: The Famous Tragedy of the Rich Jew of Malta) is a play by Christopher Marlowe, written in 1589 or 1590. The plot primarily revolves around a Maltese Jewish merchant named Barabas. The original story combines religious conflict, intrigue, and revenge, set against a backdrop of the struggle for supremacy between Spain and the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean that takes place on the island of Malta.
1592:[Travel][India][RJ] Raja Man Singh I began construction in 1592 and the palace, which was built as a strong, safe haven against attacking enemies, was completed by Mirja Raja Jai Singh.
1592:[Education][UK][Public] University of Dublin (Trinity College Dublin) founded.
1592:[History] There are some defeats more triumphant than victories. Michel de Montaigne French essayist (1533 - 1592). The phrase "there are some defeats more triumphant than victories" suggests that while a victory may seem like a triumph, a defeat can, in certain circumstances, be more significant or meaningful. (quote)
1595:[Book] Romeo and Juliet was published by Shakespeare. He must have written the play between 1591 and 1596.
1590:[Technology] Two Dutch spectacle-makers and father-and-son team, Hans and Zacharias Janssen, create the first microscope.
1591: Timbuktu was sacked by Moroccan invaders in 1591, leading to a long economic decline. Named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988 for its outstanding cultural value.
1596:[SpaceX] In 1596, Johannes Kepler wrote, "Between Mars and Jupiter, I place a planet," in his Mysterium Cosmographicum, stating his prediction that a planet would be found there.[14] While analyzing Tycho Brahe's data, Kepler thought that too large a gap existed between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter to fit his own model of where planetary orbits should be found.
1596: Rene Descartes (France) born. He later solved the problem of describing the position of a point in a plane using the existing concept of Latitude-Longitude. Cartesian System was named in his honour.
1596:[Book] The Merchant of Venice, a play written by William Shakespeare in which a merchant in Venice named Antonio defaults on a large loan provided by a Jewish moneylender, Shylock.
1596:[Space][Books] Savile produced the first printed edition of the first four books of the Gesta Pontificum Anglorum – an ecclesiastical history of England written by William of Malmesbury in the early 12th century. Savile used Cambridge University Library MS Ff.1.25.1 as his source for this, which was a copy of a copy of the original manuscript.
1597:[Space][Crime] Demolition of atronomical observatory Uraniborg in Hven, Sweden.
1597:[crime] State-Sanctioned Abductions: In 1597, Queen Elizabeth I of England legally licensed agents to abduct children to train as choir singers and theater actors. Port cities also saw "shanghaiing"—the illegal kidnapping of sailors to force them to work on merchant ships. Definition and Origin: The word comes from "kid" (child) and "nap" (nab or snatch). It originally meant stealing children to sell them as unpaid servants or laborers in the early American colonies. Wartime and Slavery: Armies routinely abducted civilians, women, and children during wars to use as slaves, forced labor, or military conscripts. (kidnap)
1598: Russia win over the Siberian Khanate.1598:The first recorded mention of the dodo was by Dutch sailors in 1598. In the following years, the bird was hunted by sailors and invasive species, while its habitat was being destroyed. The last widely accepted sighting of a dodo was in 1662. Its extinction was not immediately noticed, and some considered the bird to be a myth. In the 19th century, research was conducted on a small quantity of remains of four specimens that had been brought to Europe in the early 17th century.
1599: Shahzada Murad Mirza (8 June 1570 – 12 May 1599) was a Mughal prince as the second surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar and one of his Empress Salima Sultan Begum.
1599:[Book] The Tragedy of Julius Caesar is a history play and tragedy by William Shakespeare first performed in 1599.
1599:[Travel][India][RJ] The Jagat Shiromani Temple is a Hindu temple located in Amer, Jaipur. Possessing an extraordinary architecture which enchants with its greatness and beauty, it is a site of immense fascination for the tourists. The temple is devoted to Hindu gods Lord Krishna and Lord Vishnu, and is said to be built around 1599-1608 AD by Queen Kanakwati, the wife of King Man Singh I, in the memory of their son Jagat Singh. ‘Jagat Shiromani’, meaning ‘Head Jewel of Lord Vishnu’, is an epochal facet of the ancient history of Rajasthan.
17th century CE started on 1st Jan 1601 AD.
1600s:[History] The 17th century lasted from January 1, 1601, to December 31, 1700. It was an era of profound transition marked by the Scientific Revolution, the destructive Thirty Years' War, widespread global crises, and the birth of modern philosophy, sitting right on the border between the medieval world and modern times.
1600s: The mathematical concept of a function emerged in the 17th century in connection with the development of the calculus; for example, the slope dy/dx of a graph at a point was regarded as a function of the x-coordinate of the point. Functions were not explicitly considered in antiquity, but some precursors of the concept can perhaps be seen in the work of medieval philosophers and mathematicians such as Oresme (1323–1382).1600s:[India][Food][Business]Delhi's Khari Baoli, Asia's largest wholesale grocery and spice market (2022) and India's oldest spice market selling a variety of spices, nuts, herbs and food products like rice and tea. It came into being in the Mughal era.
1600s:[History][India][Military] The Pindaris were horsemen who were mostly armed with a talwar and a large spear. They were organised into groups called durrahs each of which had a leader and were organised into different castes and classes. Allegiances were usually hereditary but membership of each durrah could be interchangeable.
1600: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] By this time, the Portuguese real is considered irrelevant as a reserve currency [[18:03](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=1083)].
1600: Instrumental music became dominant in the Baroque, and most major music forms were defined. It continued till the Classical period flourished, till 1750.1600: English (British) East India Company founded. The East India Company (EIC), also known as the Honourable East India Company (HEIC) or the British East India Company and informally as John Company, was an English and later British joint-stock company, which was formed to pursue trade with the "East Indies" (in present-day terms, Maritime Southeast Asia), but ended up trading mainly with Qing China and seizing control of the Indian subcontinent.
1600: William Gilbert is credited as one of the originators of the term "electricity" and also remembered largely for his book De Magnete (published in 1600).
He is regarded by some as the father of electrical engineering or electricity and magnetism. He concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses point north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass). He was the first to argue, correctly, that the centre of the Earth was iron, and he considered an important and related property of magnets was that they can be cut, each forming a new magnet with north and south poles.
1600s:[Culture][Garment] Shirts appeared first in European dress in the seventeenth century (1601-1700) as a kind of underwear, designed to protect expensive waistcoats and frock coats from sweat and soil. By the early eighteenth century (1701-1725), shirts had assumed importance as garments in their own right.
1600s:[India][FnB] Potatoes and Tomatoes in India. The Portuguese introduced potatoes, which they called 'Batata', to India in the early seventeenth century when they cultivated it along the western coast. British traders introduced potatoes to Bengal as a root crop, 'Alu'. By the end of the 18th century, it was cultivated across northern hill areas of India. The tomato arrived in India by the way of Portuguese explorers, in the 16th century. It was grown from the 18th century onwards for the British.
1600s:[Tourism][UK] Ancient woodland: Classified as ancient semi-natural woodland, meaning trees have continuously occupied the site since at least 1600 AD. Individual trees: Many of the gnarled, twisting sessile oaks and birches growing along the brook are estimated to be up to 300 years old. If you wanted to convince someone that fairies, nymphs, and other mythic charmers were real, a trip to Padley Gorge in Derbyshire might help sell the story. Even the park rangers of the Peak District, where the gorge lies, admit that it's easy to understand why locals of centuries ago assumed the place was a haven for sprites. Burbage Brook runs through the bottom of the woodland, adding a quiet, shady stream to the gorge, which is one of the furthest‑inland examples of temperate rainforest in the UK. Linger for a while under the trees here, and you may spot some of the abundant birdlife present, like wood warblers, hawfinches, and pied flycatchers. (Jul 2026).
1600s:[mktg][FnB] Sadar Bazar in Delhi is one of India's oldest and largest wholesale markets. The word "Sadar" means central or main. The market grew significantly during the British colonial period to serve urban and military trading needs, merging with older nearby residential and trade pockets like Pahari Dhiraj. Mughal Roots: Parts of Old Delhi's trade networks trace back to the 17th-century design of Shahjahanabad by Princess Jahanara, with early local supply spots catering to royal and civilian needs.
1600s:[geo][greece] The iconic old windmill in Agia Marina stands right in the sea and serves as the most famous landmark on the island of Leros, Greece.History and PurposeConstruction: The traditional windmills on Leros date from the 17th to the 19th centuries, built to harness the strong Aegean winds.Function: Locals used the cylindrical stone mills with cone-shaped roofs to grind wheat and barley into flour.The Sea Windmill: According to local tradition, the famous Agia Marina windmill in the water was donated in the early 20th century by a wealthy Lerian benefactor living in Egypt. It is connected to the shore by a narrow stone walkway.Decline: The daily use of these wind-powered mills ended in the late 19th century when mechanized flour mills arrived.Preservation: Many structures, including the cluster of mills on the hill toward the Castle of Panteli, have been restored as museums, exhibition spaces, or cafés. The standalone sea windmill is listed as a protected historic monument.Would you like to know more about other historical landmarks on Leros (such as the Medieval Castle of Panteli or the Italian Rationalist architecture in Lakki) or how to visit these sites?
[tour] Asked to picture a windmill, most folks' minds will conjure up images from the plains of Holland or the writings of Cervantes. Windmills probably originated in ancient Persia, spreading across Asia well before they reached Europe. The example in our photo lies in between, situated on a European island just a few short miles from Asia. Leros is part of the Dodecanese chain of islands, which hugs the Turkish coast but is a part of Greece. It's one of many Greek isles that feature traditional medieval windmills: painted stone cylinders with conical roofs and thin-spoked sails. Built to pump water and grind grain, many of them can now be rented as vacation homes.
1601: Pierre de Fermat was born.
1601:[Book] The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, often shortened to Hamlet, is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play, with 29,551 words.
1603: Union of the Crowns
1603: Academy of Lynxes (the second academy of the world) founded at Palazzo Corsini on the Via della Lungara in Rome (Italy) by Federico Cesi, the son of the Duke of Acquasparta, and a member of an important family from Rome.Galileo Galilei Linceo was inducted to the exclusive Academy on April 25, 1611.
1602: Dutch East India Company founded.
1602:[Book] Troilus and Cressida (/ˈtrɔɪləs ... ˈkrɛsɪdə/) is a play by William Shakespeare, probably written in 1602. At Troy during the Trojan War, Troilus and Cressida begin a love affair. Cressida is forced to leave Troy to join her father in the Greek camp. Meanwhile, the Greeks endeavour to lessen the pride of Achilles.
1603 (Nov 30): William Gilbert, the father of electrical engineering or electricity and magnetism, died aged 59 in London, England.1603: Union of the Crowns
1603: Academy of Lynxes (the second academy of the world) founded at Palazzo Corsini on the Via della Lungara in Rome (Italy) by Federico Cesi, the son of the Duke of Acquasparta, and a member of an important family from Rome.Galileo Galilei Linceo was inducted to the exclusive Academy on April 25, 1611.
1603:[Book] William Shakespeare's Othello.
1604:[Culture][Kinky] slang for vagina - Fish-pond
1605:[Culture] The history of newspapers stretches back to ancient Rome with the Acta Diurna, daily public records, but the modern printed newspaper as we know it emerged in 17th century Europe. Johann Carolus's Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, published in Germany in 1605, is often recognized as the first newspaper. Newspapers played a crucial role in disseminating information and shaping public opinion, evolving from government-controlled publications to a more free press in many parts of the world.
1605:[Who][India] Jahangir was the fourth Mughal Emperor of Hindustan, ruling from 1605 to 1627. Son of Emperor Akbar, he is known for his reign marked by artistic patronage, religious tolerance, and military accomplishments. He was a significant patron of Mughal painting, supported architectural projects, and maintained his father's policy of religious freedom, allowing interaction between various religious groups, including his first European visitors. His rule was characterized by prosperity, building upon the foundations laid by his ancestors.
1605: Sarai Badar Pur was constructed by Jahangir, and it is situated on the Delhi-Mathura Road. Zafar Hasanclaims that the Sarai is a large structure composed of rubble masonry.
1605:[History] Humayun's son Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) is often remembered as the greatest of all Mughal emperors. (Who was the most loved Mughal ruler?)
While Emperor Akbar was not strictly vegetarian, he did practice vegetarianism for three days each week and also prohibited the consumption of beef and other foods considered offensive to his Hindu and Jain subjects. He enjoyed dishes like samosas and spinach with ghee on his vegetarian days. He also favored Mughlai dishes like Murgh Musallam and Navratan Korma when not observing vegetarian restrictions.
Akbar's dietary habits were influenced by his religious and political considerations. He had a diverse set of wives, including Hindu princesses like Mariam-uz-Zamani, and his interactions with various religious leaders, like the Jain saint Hiravijaya Suri, led him to adopt certain vegetarian practices and restrictions on food items.
1606:[Book] Macbeth is a tragedy by William Shakespeare. It is thought to have been first performed in 1606.
1606:[APAC][GeoPolitics] European Contact (1606) with Vanuatu: Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernández de Quirós was the first European to arrive in 1606, believing he found the "Great Southern Continent" and naming the island of Espiritu Santo.
1607:[UK][GeoPolitics] The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. It was located on the northeast bank of the James River, about 2.5 mi (4 km) southwest of present-day Williamsburg.[1] It was established by the London Company as "James Fort" on May 4, 1607 O.S. (May 14, 1607 N.S.),[2] and considered permanent, after a brief abandonment in 1610. It followed failed attempts, including the Roanoke Colony, established in 1585. Despite the dispatch of more supplies, only 60 of the original 214 settlers survived the 1609–1610 Starving Time. In mid-1610, the survivors abandoned Jamestown, though they returned after meeting a resupply convoy in the James River.
1607: Pierre de Fermat (French: [pjɛːʁ də fɛʁma]; (Between 31 October and 6 December 1607 – 12 January 1665) was a French lawyer at the Parlement of Toulouse, France, and a mathematician who is given credit for early developments that led to infinitesimal calculus, including his technique of adequality.
1607:[Book][Drama]: Antony and Cleopatra (First Folio title: The Tragedie of Anthonie, and Cleopatra) is a tragedy by William Shakespeare. The play was first performed, by the King's Men, at either the Blackfriars Theatre or the Globe Theatre in around 1607; its first appearance in print was in the Folio of 1623.
1607:[Culture][Book] The word pimp first appeared in English in 1607, in a Thomas Middleton play entitled Your Five Gallants. It is of unknown origin, but may have stemmed from the French infinitive pimper meaning to dress up elegantly and from the present participle pimpant meaning alluring in seductive dress. Pimp used as a verb, meaning to act as a pimp, first appeared in 1636 in Philip Massinger's play, The Bashful Lover.
1608:[Technology] Telescope - The earliest patent for a telescope was in 1608 by Hans Lippershey, but Galileo Galilei made significant improvements in 1609.
1608:[History][India] The "arrival of the British" most commonly refers to the arrival of the British East India Company in India, marked by Captain William Hawkins landing at Surat on August 24, 1,608, to secure trading privileges from the Mughal Empire. Later, New Typologies: Introduction of administrative hill stations as summer retreats and railway/industrial townships. The British moved entire government machinery, including the Viceroy's Council, to the hills for months at a time. Shimla (formerly Simla) became the official summer capital of British India in 1864, housing imperial administration from April to October.
1608:[History][India] Colonial UrbanizationPresidency Port Cities: The British shifted the urban focus toward coastal extraction and maritime trade, establishing colonial hubs like Bombay (Mumbai), Calcutta (Kolkata), and Madras (Chennai).
1609: Kepler's laws. Johannes Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe. Kepler's work published (till 1619). the work improved the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, explaining how the planets' speeds varied, and using elliptical orbits rather than circular orbits with epicycles.
1609: Kepler's laws. Johannes Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe. Kepler's work published (till 1619). the work improved the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, explaining how the planets' speeds varied, and using elliptical orbits rather than circular orbits with epicycles.
1611:[Book] The Tempest is a play by English playwright William Shakespeare, probably written in 1610–1611, and thought to be one of the last plays that Shakespeare wrote alone.
1611:[Culture][Kinky] slang for vagina - Ace of Hearts
1610 (Mar):[Space] Galileo Galilei was the first astronomer to view the Pleiades through a telescope. He thereby discovered that the cluster contains many stars too dim to be seen with the naked eye. He published his observations, including a sketch of the Pleiades showing 36 stars, in his treatise Sidereus Nuncius.
1610:[Travel][History] Newfoundland was an English, and later British, colony established in 1610 on the island of Newfoundland. That followed decades of sporadic English settlement on the island, which was at first only seasonal. Newfoundland was made a Crown colony in 1824 and a dominion in 1907.Its economy collapsed during the Great Depression. On 16 February 1934, the Newfoundland legislature agreed to the creation of a six-member Commission of Government to govern the country. In 1949, the country voted to join Canada as the province of Newfoundland.
1612: the British East India Company had established a presence in India.
1612: the British East India Company had established a presence in India.
1615:[History][India][Business] Sir Thomas Roe secured a Mughal farman (royal order) from Emperor Jahangir for trade, which was a royal concession rather than a mutual treaty with an independent Indian state. Later on major treaties were signed 1757 onwards.
1615:[History][Military] The Ahom kingdom defeated the Mughal Empire 17 times in a series of conflicts that spanned from 1615 to 1682. According to a Facebook post, the Ahom dynasty's resilience against the Mughals is a significant part of their history. The most notable of these victories was the Battle of Saraighat in 1671, where the Ahom army, led by Lachit Borphukan, successfully repelled a larger Mughal force.
1616:[India] As a part of the New Diplomatic Strategy, a marriage alliance was created between the two ruling families, the Mughals and the Rajput's. The Rajput's decided to barter their daughters for political gain and monetary benefits.
1617:[Computing] Napier's bones is a manually-operated calculating device created by John Napier of Merchiston, Scotland for the calculation of products and quotients of numbers. The method was based on lattice multiplication, and also called rabdology, a word invented by Napier. Napier published his version in 1617.
1619: Kepler's third law was published.
1619:[US] 400 years ago, in August 1619, the first ship with enslaved Africans destined for the United States arrived in what was then the colony of Virginia. But the cruel history of the trans-Atlantic slave trade begins much earlier and goes on much longer – for more than 350 years.
---------------------------------------- The Age of Enligtenment starts -------------------------------------------
1620s: French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715 (the year that Louis XIV died) and 1789 (the beginning of the French Revolution). International historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution.
1620s:[Travel][India][RJ] Jagmandir is a palace built on an island on the Lake Pichola. Also called the ‘Lake Garden Palace’, the construction for this began in 1620 and was completed around 1652. The royal family used the palace as its summer resort and for hosting parties.
1620:[UK][Travel][Culture] The people we know as Pilgrims have become so surrounded by legend that we are tempted to forget that they were real people. Against great odds, they made the famous 1620 voyage aboard the ship Mayflower and founded Plymouth Colony (sometimes spelled Plimouth), but they were also ordinary English men and women.
1620:[GeoPolitics][US][UK][Business][extreme] Plymouth Colony was founded by the Pilgrims in December 1620. Following their 1620 voyage on the Mayflower, the settlers established their first, permanent settlement in what is now Plymouth, Massachusetts, with historical markers on Leyden Street identifying the original location. Plimoth Patuxet Museums Plimoth Patuxet Museums +1 Location: Present-day Plymouth, Massachusetts. Significance: The first permanent English colony in New England. Context: Established by "Pilgrims" (separatists and other settlers) after the Mayflower anchored. Those who founded Plymouth colony are often referred to as “Separatists” or “Pilgrims.” The earliest English settlers of New England were called “Puritans,” a label coined and hurled at them derisively by their enemies.
1622:[Art][Culture] The Procuress by Dirck van Baburen, 1622
1623: Blaise Pascal was born;
1623: Tulsidas died at the Assi Ghat on the bank of the river Ganga in the Shraavan (July–August) month of the year Vikram 1680 (1623 CE).
1623: Tulsidas died at the Assi Ghat on the bank of the river Ganga in the Shraavan (July–August) month of the year Vikram 1680 (1623 CE).
1623:[Book] The Winter's Tale is a play by William Shakespeare originally published in the First Folio of 1623. Although it was grouped among the comedies,[1] many modern editors have relabelled the play as one of Shakespeare's late romances.
1625: Moradabad was founded as an office for the Chaupala pargana during emperor Akbar's regime by Rustam Khan and is named after prince Murad Baksh, the son of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. In AD 1624 it was captured by Rustam Khan, the then Governor of Sambhal who named it Rustam Nagar. A mosque named Jama Masjid was constructed in the city by Rustam Khan for the Mughal Emperor.
1625: Moradabad was founded as an office for the Chaupala pargana during emperor Akbar's regime by Rustam Khan and is named after prince Murad Baksh, the son of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. In AD 1624 it was captured by Rustam Khan, the then Governor of Sambhal who named it Rustam Nagar. A mosque named Jama Masjid was constructed in the city by Rustam Khan for the Mughal Emperor.
1626:[ety][military] Historically, the primary role of pioneer units was to assist other arms in tasks such as the construction of field fortifications, military camps, bridges and roads. Prior to and during the First World War, pioneers were often engaged in the construction and repair of military railways. During World War II, pioneer units were used extensively by all major forces, both on the front line and in supporting roles.
1628:[India][Culture][FnB] History of Mughlai Food in Delhi/Rampur. During the 16th century, the city declined as the Mughal capital was shifted. The fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan built the walled city of Shahjahanabad within Delhi, and its landmarks, the Red Fort and Jama Masjid. His reign would be considered the zenith of the empire. Khomche waale (movable feast, dish peddlers). Nahari in Matia Mahal. Spicy and buttery food introduced due to Yamuna's presence in Delhi as suggested by Shahjahan's personal physician.
1629:[Maths][Research] The first general method of investigating maxima and minima seems to have been published in A.D. 1629 by Pierre Fermat. Particular cases had been discussed. Thus Euclid in book III. of the Elements finds the greatest and least straight lines that can be drawn from a point to the circumference of a circle, and in book VI. (in a proposition generally omitted from editions of his works) finds the parallelogram of greatest area with a given perimeter. Apollonius further investigated on these lines.
1630: Baba ki Sarai is a lesser-known historical site in Chandni Chowk, Delhi, and holds culturalsignificance as part of the area's rich Mughal-era heritage. Located amidst the bustling lanesof one of Delhi's oldest and most famous marketplaces, it is believed to have served as a Sarai(resting place or inn) for travelers, merchants, or pilgrims during its time.It was established by emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century as part of Shahjahanabad
1630: [US] Homicide Rates in New England, 1630-1800
1631: [India] It was in 1631 that the construction of the Taj began. Carpenters, Sculptors, Stonecutters, Bricklayers, Painters, Inlayers, Calligraphers, Dome experts, and various other artisans of different skillset were commissioned from the entire realm that spanned from across Iran and Central Asia alike. It took around 22 years to shape up and put together this spectacle – The Taj – which is, to date, considered as one of the most stunning architectural marvels that anyone could have ever witnessed. Moreover, it symbolizes eternal love which tugs at anyone's heartstrings. Close to twenty-two thousand laborers and a thousand elephants were on their toes and greatly contributed to erecting one of the world's most awe-inspiring structures - the Taj. A massive chunk of the monument was carved out of a single pearl-ivory colored marble, which was custom-ordered from Rajasthan. For the other sections of the Taj, marble was acquired from other parts of India as well as Central Asia.
1632: The Taj Mahal, Agra built by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, the architect of Red Fort.
1632: The Taj Mahal, Agra built by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, the architect of Red Fort.
1632:[Education][EU][Public] University of Amsterdam, Netherlands founded.
1633: Russia had extended to the Pacific ocean. Russian conquest of Siberia.1633:[Culture][Kinky] slang for boobs - Milky Way
1636:[Education][US][Public] Harvard University founded.
1636:[Art][Culture] The procuress by Jan G. van Bronckhorst, 1636–1638
1636:[History][India] Before he was emperor, but while he was a governor of the Deccan, Aurangzeb also sought the lands of the Deccan sultanates. In 1636 CE, Aurangzeb took over Ahmednagar. Later during his reign, Emperor Aurangzeb expanded further into the Deccan and, in 1686 CE, conquered the Bijapur Sultanate, adding it to his empire.
1636:[History][India][Military] The Pindaris (Bhalse, Maratha, Rohilla and Pathans) were irregular military plunderers and foragers (20k-30k in numbers) from 17th- through early 19th-century Indian subcontinent who accompanied initially the Mughal Army, and later the Maratha Army, and finally on their own before being eliminated in the 1817–19 Pindari War. They were unpaid and their compensation was entirely the booty they plundered during wars and raids. They were mostly horsemen armed with spears and swords who would create chaos and deliver intelligence about the enemy positions to benefit the army they accompanied. The majority of their leaders were Muslims, but also had people of all classes and religions. The earliest mention of them is found in the Mughal period during Aurangzeb's campaign in the Deccan Plateau, but their role expanded with the Maratha Empire armed campaigns against the Mughal Empire. The term Pindar may derive from pinda, an intoxicating drink. It is a Marathi word that possibly connotes a "bundle of grass" or "who takes". They are also referred to as Bidaris in some historic texts, indicating that they originally came from the Bidar district in central India.
1638:[crime][gov] The Birth of Organised Gambling (1600 – 1900) - 1638: The first official casino, Il Ridotto, opens in Venice, Italy. It was established by the local government to provide a structured, safe environment for wealthy gamblers during the carnival season.
1639: The capital of India shifted back to Delhi from Agra. Old Delhi (Shahjahanabad): Founded in 1639 by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, serving as the capital of the Mughal Empire.
1639:[Delhi] Commissioned by Emperor Shah Jahan on the 12th of May 1639, the fort was constructed following his decision to shift the Mughal capital from Agra to Delhi. The Red Fort, or Lal Qila, in Delhi, India, is a historical fort complex built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century. It served as the royal residence for the Mughal emperors for nearly 200 years. The fort is named for the red sandstone used in its massive enclosing walls. Shah Jahan commissioned the fort in 1639 and it was completed nine years later in 1648. Diwan-e-Khas, also known as the Shah Mahal, the Diwan-e-Aam or the Hall of Public Audience (shown here) and the Rang Mahal, also known as the Imtiyaz Mahal, are major attractions. Not many know that the Red Fort also houses several military barracks raised by the British.
1640: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] The Dutch Guilder begins its 80-year reign as the world's reserve currency [[23:25](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=1405)].
1640: Piracy in the Caribbean was widespread during the early colonial era, especially between 1640 and 1680. The term "buccaneer" is often used to describe a pirate operating in this region.
1642: a nineteen-year-old French boy named Blaise Pascal invented an adding machine for his father, who was a clerk by profession.
1640: The development of analytical geometry around 1640 allowed mathematicians to go between geometric problems about curves and algebraic relations between "variable coordinates x and y."
1642: a nineteen-year-old French boy named Blaise Pascal invented an adding machine for his father, who was a clerk by profession.
1640: The development of analytical geometry around 1640 allowed mathematicians to go between geometric problems about curves and algebraic relations between "variable coordinates x and y."
1640:[History][Economics] Economic historians have long noted that demographic shifts underpin crises in history. The collapse of the English state in 1640-1641 came because of factional feuds amongst the élite, fiscal crisis, and economic distress. Such as multiple European crises through to the revolutions of 1848—from which the Arab Spring got its name.
1641:[Research][Physics] The evil demon (thought experiment), also known as Deus deceptor, malicious demon, and evil genius, is an epistemological concept that features prominently in Cartesian philosophy. In the first of his 1641 Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes imagines that a malevolent God or an evil demon, of "utmost power and cunning has employed all his energies in order to deceive me." This malevolent God or evil demon is imagined to present a complete illusion of an external world, so that Descartes can say, "I shall think that the sky, the air, the earth, colours, shapes, sounds and all external things are merely the delusions of dreams which he has devised to ensnare my judgement. I shall consider myself as not having hands or eyes, or flesh, or blood or senses, but as falsely believing that I have all these things."
1642 (Dec 25): Isaac Newton born at Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England.
He was born according to the Julian calendar (in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (NS 4 January 1643[1]), at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug.
1643:[Technology] Barometer - Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercury barometer in 1643.
1642 (Dec 25): Isaac Newton born at Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England.
He was born according to the Julian calendar (in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (NS 4 January 1643[1]), at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug.
1643:[Technology] Barometer - Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercury barometer in 1643.
1643:[crime] The Rise of Excise Taxes and Rebellion (1600s–1700s) - 1643: The Long Parliament introduces the first excise tax on alcohol in England. This triggers widespread underground distilling by citizens refusing to pay the levy.
1644: The Qing dynasty (English /tʃɪŋ/) (Chinese: 清朝; pinyin: Qīng Cháo; Wade–Giles: Ch'ing Ch'ao), officially the Great Qing (大清; Dà Qīng), also called the Empire of the Great Qing or the Manchu dynasty, was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China.
1644: Construction of Jama Masjid, Delhi or The Masjid-i Jahan-Numa (Persian/Urdu: مسجدِ جہاں نما, Devanagari: मस्जिद जहान नुमा, the 'World-reflecting Mosque') was started by Shah Jahan at a cost of 1 million rupees.
1645: The Royal Society founded when a group of scientists began to hold regular meetings.
1646; Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (/ˈlaɪbnɪts/;German: [ˈɡɔtfʁiːt ˈvɪlhɛlm fɔn ˈlaɪbnɪts] or [ˈlaɪpnɪts]; French: Godefroi Guillaume Leibnitz;1 July 1646 [O.S. 21 June] – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath and philosopher who occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy, having developed differential and integral calculus independently of Isaac Newton. Leibniz's notation has been widely used ever since it was published.
It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity found mathematical implementation (by means of non-standard analysis). He became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. While working on adding automatic multiplication and division to Pascal's calculator, he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in 1685 and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers.
In philosophy, Leibniz is most noted for his optimism, i.e. his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created, an idea that was often lampooned by others such as Voltaire. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism. The work of Leibniz anticipated modern logic and analytic philosophy, but his philosophy also looks back to the scholastic tradition, in which conclusions are produced by applying reason to first principles or prior definitions rather than to empirical evidence.
1647: Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted the similarity among certain Asian and European languages and theorized that they were derived from a primitive common language which he called Scythian.
1644: Construction of Jama Masjid, Delhi or The Masjid-i Jahan-Numa (Persian/Urdu: مسجدِ جہاں نما, Devanagari: मस्जिद जहान नुमा, the 'World-reflecting Mosque') was started by Shah Jahan at a cost of 1 million rupees.
1645: The Royal Society founded when a group of scientists began to hold regular meetings.
1646; Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (/ˈlaɪbnɪts/;German: [ˈɡɔtfʁiːt ˈvɪlhɛlm fɔn ˈlaɪbnɪts] or [ˈlaɪpnɪts]; French: Godefroi Guillaume Leibnitz;1 July 1646 [O.S. 21 June] – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath and philosopher who occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy, having developed differential and integral calculus independently of Isaac Newton. Leibniz's notation has been widely used ever since it was published.
It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity found mathematical implementation (by means of non-standard analysis). He became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. While working on adding automatic multiplication and division to Pascal's calculator, he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in 1685 and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers.
In philosophy, Leibniz is most noted for his optimism, i.e. his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created, an idea that was often lampooned by others such as Voltaire. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism. The work of Leibniz anticipated modern logic and analytic philosophy, but his philosophy also looks back to the scholastic tradition, in which conclusions are produced by applying reason to first principles or prior definitions rather than to empirical evidence.
1647: Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted the similarity among certain Asian and European languages and theorized that they were derived from a primitive common language which he called Scythian.
1648: Red Fort, Delhi inaugurated.
1649:[Who] Born on May 4, 1649, Chhatrasal was the son of Champat Rai, a nobleman in the Bundela Rajput clan. The unjust execution of his father by Mughal forces bolstered Chhatrasal's resolve to oppose the Mughal Empire. At the tender age of 12, he witnessed the injustices of imperial rule, which sowed the seeds of rebellion in his heart. By the age of 22, he had gathered a small force of loyalists and initiated a series of guerrilla attacks against the Mughals. These early engagements were not just minor skirmishes but the beginning of a protracted struggle for the liberation of Bundelkhand from under the thumb of Mughal subjugation.
1650s : Mid-1600s: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] The Guilder becomes the formalized currency of choice for international contracts and trade [[07:23](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=443)].
1650s: A coffeehouse owned by Edward Lloyd, later of Lloyd's of London, was the primary meeting place for merchants, ship owners and others seeking insurance for their voyages and cargos.
1650s:[Culture] The Quaker movement emerged in England in the mid-1600s and quickly spread to other parts of the British Isles. From there, it expanded to northwestern Europe and the British colonies. Quakers in Europe, also known as the Religious Society of Friends, are a religious movement that originated in England in the 17th century. While the movement spread to other parts of Europe and the world, the largest Quaker population in Europe remains in Britain. European Quakers are known for their commitment to peace, social justice, and equality. Quakers emphasize direct experience of God, equality, peace, simplicity, and integrity. They often worship in silence, waiting for spiritual guidance. European Quakers are involved in various peace and social justice initiatives, including advocacy for humane policies, climate justice, and dialogue for transformation. (Arthur Eddington, 1919)
1650: Expulsion of the Portuguese from Oman.
1650s:Ghaziuddin Khan established the madrasa in the late 17th century. The Oriental College in Delhi, now known as Zakir Husain Delhi College, has a rich history intertwined with the Mughal era and British Raj. It was initially founded by Ghaziuddin Khan, a commander under Aurangzeb, as a madrasa (religious school). Later, it was transformed into an Oriental College in 1792 and then renamed the Anglo-Arabic College in 1828. The college played a significant role in promoting education and intellectual discourse in Delhi.
1650:By 1650, the world’s population rose to about 500 million—not a large increase from the estimate of 300 million in 1 C.E. The average annual rate of growth was actually lower in this period than the rate suggested for 8000 B.C.E. to 1 C.E. One reason for the unusually slower growth was the Black Death. This dreaded plague was not limited to 14th-century Europe but may have begun in western Asia in about 542 C.E. and spread from there. Experts believe that half the Byzantine Empire was destroyed by plague in the sixth century, a total of 100 million deaths. Such large fluctuations in population size over long periods greatly compound the difficulty of estimating the number of people who have ever lived.
1650:[mktg][FnB] 17th Century: The stepwell and surrounding structured market area gained prominence around 1650, tied closely to the founding of Shahjahanabad and Fatehpuri Begum (one of Emperor Shah Jahan's wives). Water Source: The stepwell eventually dried up or was filled in over time, but the name "Khari Baoli" stayed with the flourishing marketplace.
1651:[Book] Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil, commonly referred to as Leviathan, is a book written by Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and published in 1651 (revised Latin edition 1668).
1653: the Royal Navy had issued instructions by which an admiral could signal various orders by hoisting flags in various locations on his ship.
1653: the Royal Navy had issued instructions by which an admiral could signal various orders by hoisting flags in various locations on his ship.
1653: [India] After a lavish expenditure of close to Rs. 32 million, the Taj was completed in 1653 AD.
1654: The concept of Probability developed in a very strange manner when a gambler Chevalier de Mere approached the Blaise Pascal of France regarding certain dice problems. Pascal further discussed them with another French mathematician, Pierre de Fermat.
1654: J. Bernoulli was born.
1656:[Technology] Pendulum Clock - Invented by Christiaan Huygens in 1656.
1654: The concept of Probability developed in a very strange manner when a gambler Chevalier de Mere approached the Blaise Pascal of France regarding certain dice problems. Pascal further discussed them with another French mathematician, Pierre de Fermat.
1654: J. Bernoulli was born.
1656:[Technology] Pendulum Clock - Invented by Christiaan Huygens in 1656.
1656: Edmond Halley, an English astronomer was born. He once said "The principal use of the analytic art is to bring Mathematical Problems to Equation and to exhibit those eqns. in the most simple terms that can be".
1656: the construction of Jama Masjid was completed with three great gates, four towers and two 40 m high minarets constructed of strips of red sandstone and white marble. The courtyard can accommodate more than 25,000 persons.
1656: the construction of Jama Masjid was completed with three great gates, four towers and two 40 m high minarets constructed of strips of red sandstone and white marble. The courtyard can accommodate more than 25,000 persons.
1659:[History][Military] The Battle of Pratapgad took place on 10 November 1659, at Pratapgarh Fort in Satara. The battle was fought between the Maratha forces led by Shivaji Raje Bhosale and the Bijapur troops under General Afzal Khan.
1659:[History][Military] It's difficult to pinpoint an exact number, but Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is estimated to have won around 70 battles. These victories were crucial in establishing the Maratha Empire and expanding his control over western and central India. Some of his notable wins include the capture of Torna Fort, Raigad Fort, and the defeat of Afzal Khan at the Battle of Pratapgad. (How many wars has Shivaji won?)
Many are unaware of the fact that Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj has eight wives. His first wife was Saibai, also known as Nimbalkar. The names of the other wives were Soyarabai, Mohite, Putalabai, Palkar, Sakvarbi Gaikwad, Sangunabai, and Kashibai Jadhav.
1659:[History][India] The first battle involving Maratha empire - The Battle of Pratapgad took place on 10 November 1659, at Pratapgarh Fort in Satara. The battle was fought between the Maratha forces led by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and the Bijapur troops under General Afzal Khan. The Marathas emerged victorious, marking their first significant military triumph against a major regional power. In the aftermath of this victory Shivaji captured 65 elephants, 4,000 horses, 1,200 camels and 1,000,000 rupees of cash and jewellery.
1659:[History][India]Battle of Pratapgad (1659): A significant early triumph for Shivaji Maharaj against Bijapur.
1659:[Tourism][UK] 1659 (The Great Fire): A massive fire destroyed almost the entire town. When it was rebuilt, architects intentionally left large, open village greens to act as natural firebreaks, which gives the town its unique modern layout.
1660s:[Research] Geogony, Derived from Greek geo- (earth) and -gony (generation/birth), literally meaning "earth generation", is the scientific study or theory regarding the origin, formation, and evolution of the Earth, particularly the creation of its crust and physical features. Originating in the late 17th century, it is considered a dated or technical term for the branch of geology concerned with early planetary development. It focuses on the processes that shaped the planet over millions of years, including the development of mountains, valleys, and geological structures. While often used historically, it is largely replaced in modern scientific literature by specific fields like geochemistry, plate tectonics, or geomorphology.
1660:[History] The late 17th century (approx. 1660–1700) was a pivotal era defined by the Restoration in England, the height of the Dutch Golden Age, and the expansion of colonial empires. Key developments included the Scientific Revolution (Newton’s Principia, 1687), the rise of absolute monarchies like Louis XIV’s France, and the entrenchment of race-based slavery in the Americas.
1660: The Golden Age of Piracy begins, almost exactly where the Renaissance ended.
1661 (Jun):[Physics][Who] Issac Newton was admitted to Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. His uncle Reverend William Ayscough, who had studied at Cambridge, recommended him to the university. At Cambridge, Newton started as a subsizar, paying his way by performing valet duties until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664.
1661: The Bombay Presidency was created when the city of Bombay was leased to the East India Company by a Royal Charter from the King of England, Charles II, who had in turn acquired it on May 11, 1661, when his marriage treaty with Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal, placed the islands of Bombay in possession of the English Empire, as part of Catherine's dowry to Charles.
1661: The Bombay Presidency was created when the city of Bombay was leased to the East India Company by a Royal Charter from the King of England, Charles II, who had in turn acquired it on May 11, 1661, when his marriage treaty with Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal, placed the islands of Bombay in possession of the English Empire, as part of Catherine's dowry to Charles.
1661: Consul Titus Manlius Torquatus Orders the Beheading of His Son, oil on canvas by Ferdinand Bol, 1661–64. The painting depicts the execution of the consul's son for disobeying a standing order while in combat against the Latins.
1661:[crime] The British Crown outlaws the operation of unlicensed home stills in Ireland, cementing poteen as a permanently illicit, underground industry.
1662 (Mar 19): Abraham Shipman assumed office of Royal Governer of Bombay.1662: Blaise Pascal died.
1663: Book on Games of Chance (Liber de Ludo Aleae) was published. It is authored by J. Cardan of Italy (1501-1576).
1664:[Delhi] Gurudwara Bangla Sahib, a prominent Sikh gurudwara in Delhi, is historically significant as it was originally the residence of Raja Jai Singh, a 17th-century ruler. In 1664, the eighth Sikh Guru, Guru Har Krishan Ji, stayed at this bungalow (known as a "bangla" in Hindi) while visiting Delhi. The gurudwara was later built in his memory and is named after that bungalow. The site was initially the haveli (mansion) of Raja Jai Singh, a Rajput ruler. It is believed that during a smallpox epidemic, Guru Har Krishan Ji used the well water at the bungalow to heal the sick, and he himself contracted the illness and passed away. In memory of the Guru, Raja Jai Singh donated the bungalow to the Sikh community, and a gurudwara was established there. A sarovar (holy tank) was later built at the site, and its water is considered sacred due to its association with Guru Har Krishan. Gurudwara Bangla Sahib has a long history of serving the community, including providing refuge during the Partition of India and offering meals during the pandemic.
1664:[Physics] After 3 years of service at the university, Issac Newton was offered scholoraship which covered his university costs for four more years until the completion of his MA. At the time, Cambridge's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, whom Newton read along with then more modern philosophers, including Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo Galilei and Thomas Street. He set down in his notebook a series of "Quaestiones" about mechanical philosophy as he found it.
1664: The French East India Company (La Compagnie des Indes Orientales) was planned by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, chartered by King Louis XIV for the purpose of trading in the Eastern Hemisphere. It resulted from the fusion of three earlier companies, the 1660 Compagnie de Chine, the Compagnie d'Orient and Compagnie de Madagascar.
1664: The French East India Company (La Compagnie des Indes Orientales) was planned by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, chartered by King Louis XIV for the purpose of trading in the Eastern Hemisphere. It resulted from the fusion of three earlier companies, the 1660 Compagnie de Chine, the Compagnie d'Orient and Compagnie de Madagascar.
1664: [India] Rajiv Gandhi Government General Hospital is a major state-owned hospital situated in Chennai, India. The hospital is funded and managed by the state government of Tamil Nadu. Founded in 1664 by the British East India Company, it is the first modern hospital in India In the 19th century, the Madras Medical College joined it. As of 2018, the hospital receives an average of 12,000 outpatients every day. By 2021, It had 2722 beds.
1665: During the European plague epidemic of 1665-1667, Isaac Newton, a young student at Cambridge University, retreated to his family home at Woolsthorpe Manor to escape the disease. This period of self-isolation, known as his "Annus Mirabilis" or "Year of Wonders," allowed him to conduct groundbreaking work in calculus, optics, and gravitation, laying the foundation for his future scientific career.
1665:[Physics][Maths] Newton discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus.
1665 (Aug): Soon after Newton obtained his BA degree at Cambridge, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague.
1665: Pierre de Fermat died aged 64.
1665: Pierre de Fermat died aged 64.
1665:[Art] Johannes Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring, an oil painting by Dutch Golden Age painter, dated c. 1665. Going by various names over the centuries, it became known by its present title towards the end of the 20th century after the earring worn by the girl portrayed there.
1669: Phosphorus, prepared from urine, it was the first element to be chemically discovered. H. Brand, a merchant and alchemist in Hamburg discovered and isolated it.
1665:[SPace][Research] The Paris Observatory was proposed in 1665-1666 by the French Academy of Sciences, which had recently been founded by the Minister of Finance Jean-Baptiste Colbert. In 1666, King Louis XIV authorized the building of the Observatory. On Midsummer's Day 1667, members of the Academy of Sciences traced the future building's outline on a plot outside town near the Port Royal abbey, with the Paris meridian exactly bisecting the site north–south. The meridian line was used as a basis for navigation and would be used by French cartographers as their prime meridian for more than 200 years.
1666:[Research][Chemistry] Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by different angles. This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate.
1666:[Research][Chemistry] The history of spectroscopy began with Isaac Newton's optics experiments (1666–1672). According to Andrew Fraknoi and David Morrison, "In 1672, in the first paper that he submitted to the Royal Society, Isaac Newton described an experiment in which he permitted sunlight to pass through a small hole and then through a prism. Newton found that sunlight, which looks white to us, is actually made up of a mixture of all the colors of the rainbow." Newton applied the word "spectrum" to describe the rainbow of colors that combine to form white light and that are revealed when the white light is passed through a prism.
1666:[Research][Physics] Newton retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.
1666:[Day] It is celebrated as the birth anniversary of Guru Gobind Singh and this year it falls on January 17. He was the tenth Guru out of a total of ten Sikh Gurus. On 22 December 1666, he was born in Patna, Bihar as per the Julian calendar.
1667:[Technology][Who][Books] Robert Hooke's famous "Micrographia" is published, which outlines Hooke's various studies using the microscope.
1667 (Jan 1): Guru Gobind Singh, 10th and last Sikh guru, was born in Patna, Bihar.
1668:[Physics][Who] Newton finishes his MA.
1668: On 21 September 1668, the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668 led to the transfer of Bombay from Charles II to the British East India Company for an annual rent of £10 (equivalent retail price index of £1,226 in 2007). The islands were handed over to the Company on 23 September 1668. Upon the transfer, Bombay was made subordinate to the Company's settlement in Surat. During 1668–87, the Governors of Bombay, who were also presidents of Surat Council, spent most of their time in Surat. During this time, Bombay was administered by a Deputy Governor.1669: Phosphorus, prepared from urine, it was the first element to be chemically discovered. H. Brand, a merchant and alchemist in Hamburg discovered and isolated it.
1669:[Education][EU][Public] University of Innsbruck, Austria founded.
1669:[Who] Isaac Newton became a professor in 1669 when he was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University. He succeeded Isaac Barrow in this prestigious position at the age of 26, a year after receiving his Master of Arts degree.
1669:[Who] Isaac Newton began his formal alchemical pursuits around 1669, when he purchased chemical apparatus and began experimenting with alchemy, although his interest in alchemical texts and chymical studies started earlier, during his time at the University of Cambridge as an undergraduate in the 1660s.
1670:[Food] Coffee was introduced to India during the late seventeenth century. The story goes that an Indian pilgrim to Mecca – known as Baba Budan – smuggled seven beans back to India from Yemen in 1670 (it was illegal to take coffee seeds out of Arabia at the time) and planted them in the Chandragiri hills of Karnataka.
1671:Chhatrasal's insurrection against the Mughals began in earnest in 1671. With a dedicated cadre of warriors, he embarked on a campaign of resistance that leveraged the rugged terrain of Bundelkhand to his advantage. His mastery of guerrilla warfare tactics enabled him to conduct swift raids, disrupting Mughal supply lines and reclaiming territories. Each victory bolstered his reputation, drawing more supporters to his cause. Over time, these successes culminated in the establishment of a de facto independent state. Chhatrasal's leadership was defined by his ability to unite disparate factions under a common banner of resistance, creating a formidable front against the Mughal forces that sought to quell his uprising.
1672:[History][India]Battle of Salher (1672): A pivotal early victory for Shivaji Maharaj against the Mughals.
1672:[Tourism][UK] The town's strategic coastal location later placed it at the center of British military maritime history, most notably during the Battle of Sole Bay in 1672. This fierce Anglo-Dutch naval clash took place directly off the Southwold coast, with the Duke of York directing the Royal Navy fleet from the town's cliffs. To defend against future invasions, the town was fortified with six 18-pounder cannons in 1746, which still stand on the cliffside today as a reminder of its naval importance.
1674: Chatrapati Shivaji Bhonsle of Shivneri Fort reigned for 6 years.
1674:[History][India]Shivaji I (aka Shivaji Shahaji Bhonsale, 19-Feb-1630 - 03-Apr-1680, 50YO) was an Indian ruler and a member of the Bhonsle dynasty. Shivaji inherited a jagir from his father who served as a retainer for the Sultanate of Bijapur, which later formed the genesis of the Maratha Kingdom. In 1674, he was formally crowned the Chhatrapati of his realm at Raigad Fort. Sakvarbai (m. 1656–1680), Putalabai (m. 1653–1680), Soyarabai (m. 1650–1680), Sai Bhonsale (m. 1640–1659). Soyarabai Bhosale was born in August 1634 in the house of Mohite of Karad. Her parents was Sambhaji Mohite and Laxmibai Mohite.She was the second wife of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India. She was the mother of Shivaji's second son, Rajaram and stepmother to Sambhaji. Putalabai Bhosale was the third queen of the Maratha king Chhatrapati Shivaji. She was from Palkar Family and married Shivaji in 1653. Putalabai had no children. She committed Sati after the death of Shivaji.
1675:[History][Military] The Lion of Bundelkhand - Maharaja Chhatrasal’s defiance against the Mughal Empire is an important chapter in the history of Bundelkhand. Ascending to power in a time of great turmoil, he established a kingdom that became a stronghold of independence and cultural renaissance. His tenure as ruler from 1675 to 1731 was characterized by astute military strategies and diplomatic negotiations that fortified his domain against external dominions. This article aims to chronicle the life of Chhatrasal, highlighting his early years, his relentless pursuit of sovereignty, and the alliances that shaped the course of his kingdom's destiny.
1675:[Delhi] Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed on the orders of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam. After the execution, Bhai Jaita (also known as Bhai Jivan Singh) retrieved the Guru's severed head (Sis) and carried it to Anandpur Sahib. He was beheaded at Chandni Chowk in Delhi. Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Delhi marks the site where Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, was beheaded in 1675. The Gurudwara was built to commemorate his martyrdom and stands as a symbol of Sikhism's commitment to religious freedom and the protection of the oppressed.
1676: Puiseux series are a generalization of power series, first introduced by Isaac Newton in 1676 and rediscovered by Victor Puiseux in 1850.
1678:[extreme] Li Ching-Yuen was a Chinese herbalist and longevity expert who was known to have died in 1928. He claimed to have been born in 1734, giving him a lifespan of 196 years. Investigations into birth records indicated that he was actually born in 1678, giving an even longer lifespan of 250 years!
1678:[Crime][ety] The word "kidnap" was coined in the 1680s, with the first recorded use of the specific verb form appearing in 1682. The noun form, "kidnapper," actually appeared slightly earlier (first recorded in 1678). The verb "kidnap" was later created as a back-formation by stripping away the "-er" suffix. Historically, it specifically referred to the illegal practice of stealing children or young people to sell them into forced labor or indentured servitude in the American colonies. Over time, the term expanded to include the abduction of adults and holding victims for ransom.
1679:[EU][Armenia] the city of Yerevan was mostly destroyed by an earthquake, and then rebuilt on a smaller scale.
1680: Piracy in the Caribbean was halted.
1680:[Research] While humans used yeast for centuries, it was not until 1680 that Anton van Leeuwenhoek first observed it under a microscope. Later, Theodor Schwann identified it as a fungus in 1837.
1681:[History][India]Sambhaji (14-May-1657 - 11-Mar-1689), also known as Shambhuraje, ruled from 1681 to 1689 as the second king of the Maratha Empire, a prominent state in early modern India. He was the eldest son of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. Yesubai Bhonsale was the wife of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, and referred to as Maharani of the Maratha Kingdom. She was second officially coronated Queen of Swarajya. She was also mother of Chhatrapati Shahu I. Later on she became Rajmata in Chhatrapati Shahu I's reign.
1683: [India] The Madras Bank, closed in 1843. Merged with the Bank of Madras, presently the State Bank of India
1684: Luca Giordano painted The death of Seneca, depicting the suicide of Seneca the Younger in Ancient Rome.
1684: Luca Giordano painted The death of Seneca, depicting the suicide of Seneca the Younger in Ancient Rome.
1685: The Age of Enlightenment (130 years) was a European intellectual and philosophical movement active from the late 17th to early 19th century. European politics, philosophy, science and communications were radically reoriented during the course of the “long 18th century” (1685-1815) as part of a movement referred to by its participants as the Age of Reason, or simply the Enlightenment. (the most distinguished turning points in human history)
1687: Isaac Newton showed that relationships like Kepler's would apply in the Solar System to a good approximation, as a consequence of his own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation.1687: The English East India Company transferred its Western India headquarters from Surat, its first colony in that region, to Bombay in 1687. The Presidency was brought under British Parliament control along with other parts of British India through Pitt's India Act.
1688:[Space][Books] Astronomical Unit (AU). The editio princeps was published by John Wallis, using several medieval manuscripts compiled by Sir Henry Savile (30 November 1549 – 19 February 1622). Savile was an English scholar and mathematician, Warden of Merton College, Oxford, and Provost of Eton. He endowed the Savilian chairs of Astronomy and of Geometry at Oxford University, and was one of the scholars who translated the New Testament from Greek into English. He was a Member of the Parliament of England for Bossiney in Cornwall in 1589, and Dunwich in Suffolk in 1593.
1688:The Glorious Revolution (1688) The Glorious Revolution Key Context: Growing tensions between King James II of England and the Protestant majority over fears of Catholic absolutism Significance: The Glorious Revolution was a peaceful overthrow of King James II, who was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William of Orange. Parliament invited William and Mary to take the throne under the condition that they accept a constitutional monarchy. Why It’s Famous: It was relatively bloodless compared to other revolutions. It established the principle of parliamentary supremacy over the monarchy. The revolution was pivotal in limiting the power of monarchs and expanding the role of elected representatives. Major Consequences: Bill of Rights (1689): Guaranteed certain rights for citizens and made it illegal for the monarch to rule without Parliament’s consent. Religious Tolerance: Reduced restrictions on Protestant dissenters, though Catholics remained discriminated against. Bank of England (1694): Founded shortly after to help finance England’s growing economy. Long-Term Impact: The Glorious Revolution inspired democratic movements worldwide, including the American and French Revolutions. It laid the groundwork for Britain’s constitutional system, which remains influential today.
1689:[Book] John Locke's Two Treatises of Government. (wrote anonymously)
India Company under the supervision of John Goldsborough.
1689:[Who] Isaac Newton became a Member of Parliament (MP) for Cambridge University in 1689 and later served a second term from 1701 to 1702. He won his first election to Parliament in 1689 following the Glorious Revolution, representing the university against attempts by King James II to make universities Catholic institutions.
1692:[Who] Sir Isaac Newton's exposure to mercury in his alchemical experiments is thought to have contributed to a severe nervous breakdown in 1692-1693 and possibly to his death, though not directly to his death in 1727, as hair analysis from his body revealed high levels of mercury and other heavy metals consistent with chronic poisoning. His alchemical work involved heating and distilling mercury and other substances, leading to symptoms like insomnia, delusions, and mental confusion, but it did not cause his physical death.
1693:[Education][US][Public] The College of William & Mary founded.
1694: The term "function" was introduced by Gottfried Leibniz, in a 1673 letter, to describe a quantity related to a curve, such as a curve's slope at a specific point.
1694:[Food] It was first recorded in Ben Cao Bei Yao by Wang Ang in 1694, and the Italian scholar Saccardo named the Cordyceps found in China officially as Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. in 1878; this nomenclature has been used ever since.
1695:[Culture] Explicit literary mentions of the specific term "Kumbh Mela" largely begin appearing in late-17th and 18th-century texts (such as the Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh in 1695), but individual years like 1736 do not hold a unique separate designation in standard historical timelines.
1696: (The first) Fort Williams built in Kolkata at the banks of River Hooghly by the British EastIndia Company under the supervision of John Goldsborough.
1696:[Math][Research] John Bernoulli’s famous problem of the “brachistochrone,” or curve of quickest descent from one point to another under the action of gravity, proposed in 1696, gave rise to a new kind of maximum and minimum problem in which we have to find a curve and not points on a given curve. From these problems arose the “Calculus of Variations.”
1696:[Who] The person most famously known as Sir Isaac Newton did not become a tax collector. Instead, he was appointed as Warden of the Royal Mint in 1696 by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, where his responsibilities included overseeing the recoinage project. In the mid-1690s, the United Kingdom faced a significant issue with clipped coins and a need for a large-scale recoinage. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Charles Montagu, a friend and admirer of Newton, appointed him to the position of Warden of the Royal Mint in 1696 to address this problem.
1697:[Economics][Geography] Dutch explorers led by Willem de Vlamingh became the first Europeans to see black swans, in Western Australia. The term subsequently metamorphosed to connote the idea that a perceived impossibility might later be disproven.
1698:[Technology] Steam Engine - Thomas Savery developed the first practical steam engine around 1698, and James Watt's improvements in the late 18th century made it more efficient.
1698 (Feb): Maclaurin was born in Kilmodan, Cowal, Argyll, Scotland
1698: Jonathan's Coffee-House (the original site of the London Stock Exchange) was used by John Castaing to post the prices of stocks and commodities, the first evidence of systematic exchange of securities in London, England. That year, other dealers expelled from the Royal Exchange for rowdiness migrated to Jonathan's (along with Garraway's Coffee-House).
1698 (Feb): Maclaurin was born in Kilmodan, Cowal, Argyll, Scotland
1698: Jonathan's Coffee-House (the original site of the London Stock Exchange) was used by John Castaing to post the prices of stocks and commodities, the first evidence of systematic exchange of securities in London, England. That year, other dealers expelled from the Royal Exchange for rowdiness migrated to Jonathan's (along with Garraway's Coffee-House).
--------------------------------------------------- The Renaissance ends --------------------------------------------
18th century CE started on 1st Jan 1701 AD.
1700s: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] The Dutch economy shifts from production to finance, and the government begins borrowing heavily for wars [[09:58](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=598)].
1700s:The history of India from 1700 to 1857 marks the transition from the declining Mughal Empire to the establishment of British colonial rule. This period saw the rise of regional powers like the Marathas and Sikhs, intense European competition, and the East India Company's expansion, culminating in the 1857 Revolt.
1700s: Jack Sparrow was born on a pirate ship during a typhoon.1700s: British conquered India, one of the richest countries in the world (27% of global gross domestic product in 1700)
1700s:[crime] Antiquity to Middle Ages (pre-1700s): Organized banditry and highway robbery target isolated travelers, merchants, and caravans.
1700s:[crime] The Age of Highwaymen and Dacoits (1700–1850) - 18th Century: Highway Robbery surges in Europe due to cash-based trade, poor banking, and isolated roads.
1700s:[de][history] The Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm was created in the late 18th century by Prince Leopold III Friedrich Franz of Anhalt-Dessau and his architect friend Friedrich Wilhelm von Erdmannsdorff. The Grand Tour: In the 1760s, the young prince toured England, France, Switzerland, Italy, and the Netherlands.English Style: Inspired by English landscape parks like Stourhead and Stowe, he rejected formal Baroque garden designs in favor of natural scenery.Public Access: Grounded in Enlightenment principles, the parks and palaces were open to all citizens from the beginning to educate them in agriculture, architecture, and art.
1700s:[tour][de][arch] The Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm may be in Germany, but its 18th-century design follows the English model that was trendy at the time: a mix of arboriculture and architecture that follows the flow of natural spaces, shunning the curated symmetry of French or Italian gardens. English gardens are often grand in scope, and this World Heritage Site is no exception at 36,000 acres. The park even includes a castle, plus dozens of other buildings and bridges for its million-plus yearly visitors to discover. Shown here is the wrought-iron Agnes Bridge framing the Venus Temple, one of numerous neoclassical structures in the park.
1700: The population in China, according to widely accepted estimates, was roughly 150 million, about what it had been under the late Ming a century before, then doubled over the next century, and reached a height of 450 million on the eve of the Taiping Rebellion in 1850.
1700: The homicide rate has been estimated to be over 30 per 100,000 people in 1700, dropping to under 20 by 1800, and to under 10 by 1900. After World War II, crime rates increased in the United States, peaking from the 1970s to the early-1990s. Violent crime nearly quadrupled between 1960 and its peak in 1991.
1700:[Music] The piano was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655-1731) of Italy. Cristofori was unsatisfied by the lack of control that musicians had over the volume level of the harpsichord. He is credited for switching out the plucking mechanism with a hammer to create the modern piano in around the year 1700.
17xx:[Travel][India][RJ] About 15 kilometres from Jaipur, Jaigarh Fort was built by Sawai Jai Singh II sometime in the early 18th century amidst the arid, rocky and thorn-scrub covered hills. Despite its ancient construction, it still retains most of its imposing citadel appearance. Visitors can see the world’s largest cannon – Jaiban, at the fort.
1702:[who] In 1712, the invention of the practical steam engine signaled the beginning of what became known as the Industrial Revolution, and this drastically changed the labor market. The eventual excess of workers in the manufacturing sector allowed the factory owners to dictate the rules. As a result, the average work hours in manufacturing in the U.S. reached 67.1 hours per week by 1840.
1703:[GeoPolitics][Military][Economics][APAC] Javanese Wars of Succession (1703–1755)
1703:[Who] Isaac Newton became president of the Royal Society, essentially its head, in 1703. He was elected to this prestigious position after the retirement of the previous president, Lord Somers, and was re-elected annually until his death in 1727.
1704:[Who] John Locke (/lɒk/; 29 August 1632 (O.S.) – 28 October 1704 (O.S.)) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of the Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "father of liberalism".
1705: J. Bernoulli died.
1706 (Jan 17): Benjamin Franklin was born at Boston, Massachusetts, United States
1706:[Who] Isaac Newton's first published theological ideas appeared in the 1706 Latin edition of his scientific work, Opticks, through a series of appended "Queries". Although he wrote theological works much earlier, these were not published during his lifetime.
1706 (Jan 17): Benjamin Franklin was born at Boston, Massachusetts, United States
1706:[Who] Isaac Newton's first published theological ideas appeared in the 1706 Latin edition of his scientific work, Opticks, through a series of appended "Queries". Although he wrote theological works much earlier, these were not published during his lifetime.
1707:[crime] The Act of Union applies English taxes to Scotland. Scottish distillers move their operations into the Highlands, operating nighttime hidden stills (the origin of the term "moonshine") to avoid tax collectors.
(CSE)
------------------------------------------- Modern India - Starts --------------------------------------------------
1707:[History][India] Based on previous year questions and standard academic consensus for the UPSC exam, the modern period of Indian history generally begins in the mid-18th century (circa 1707–1757). The primary defining events are the death of Aurangzeb (1707) and the resulting collapse of the Mughal Empire, followed by the Battle of Plassey (1757), which established British political supremacy.
1707: following the death of Aurangzeb, the Nizams split from the Mughals to form an independent kingdom.
1707 (Apr 15): Leonhard Euler was born at Basel, Switzerland, who later gave a God equation of mathematics. 1+exp^(i.pi) = 0 (uses 0, 1, e, i and pi)
1707: [Book][History] Political History of Medieval India (1707AD to 1950AD) by Dr. A. K. Chaturvedi & Rinki Agarwal
1707:In a remarkable feat of diplomacy, Chhatrasal secured a treaty with the Mughal Empire in 1707, which recognized his sovereignty over Bundelkhand. This agreement was a significant political victory, reflecting his influence and the respect he commanded from one of the most powerful empires of the time. The treaty ensured peace and stability in the region, allowing Chhatrasal to focus on the prosperity and development of his kingdom.
1708: Guru Gobind Singh died aged 42.
1708:[MBA] Pre-Revolutionary France: The first formal cost–benefit studies appeared around 1708, notably by the Abbé de Saint-Pierre, who measured the value of improved roads through reduced transport costs.
1710s: 10/12 yrs. old Jack Sparrow outsmarted the ruthless pirate murderer Armando Salazar (a pirate hunter who haunted the Caribbean. Hailing from Spain, Salazar was a Spaniard, a high-ranking officer of the Spanish Royal Navy and the decorated capitán of the powerful pirate hunting warship, the Silent Mary.) and led him to his death in the mysterious Devil's Triangle. However, through the dark powers of the Triangle, Salazar was resurrected more powerful than ever, but cursed to wander the world as a ghost for eternity.
1711: The South Sea Company (officially The Governor and Company of the merchants of Great Britain, trading to the South Seas and other parts of America, and for the encouragement of fishing), a British joint-stock company founded. Its value rose to peak in 1720 and collapsed. South Sea Bubble.
1710s: 10/12 yrs. old Jack Sparrow outsmarted the ruthless pirate murderer Armando Salazar (a pirate hunter who haunted the Caribbean. Hailing from Spain, Salazar was a Spaniard, a high-ranking officer of the Spanish Royal Navy and the decorated capitán of the powerful pirate hunting warship, the Silent Mary.) and led him to his death in the mysterious Devil's Triangle. However, through the dark powers of the Triangle, Salazar was resurrected more powerful than ever, but cursed to wander the world as a ghost for eternity.
1711: The South Sea Company (officially The Governor and Company of the merchants of Great Britain, trading to the South Seas and other parts of America, and for the encouragement of fishing), a British joint-stock company founded. Its value rose to peak in 1720 and collapsed. South Sea Bubble.
1714:[Technology] Thermometer - The first thermometer was developed in the early 17th century. Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit introduced the mercury-in-glass thermometer in 1714.
1715: the Age of Enlightenment in Europe. A range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.
1715: The concept of a Taylor series was formulated by the Scottish mathematician James Gregory and formally introduced by the English mathematician Brook Taylor in 1715. (defining an exponential thru Taylor series)
1715: the Age of Enlightenment in Europe. A range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.
1715: The concept of a Taylor series was formulated by the Scottish mathematician James Gregory and formally introduced by the English mathematician Brook Taylor in 1715. (defining an exponential thru Taylor series)
1715: St George's Anglo- Indian Higher Secondary School was founded in 1715 as the Military Male Orphan Asylum and is one of the oldest schools in the world and the oldest in India. It is affiliated to the Anglo-Indian Board of Education.
1715:[silvics] Pierre Magnol died aged 77YO. He was a French botanist. He was born in the city of Montpellier, then in the province of Languedoc, where he lived and worked for most of his life. He created an early system of plant classification. The name Magnol refers to the etymological root and surname base behind the flowering plant genus Magnolia, which was named in honor of the French botanist Pierre Magnol (1638–1715).
1717: Gamblers in the 1717 France were used to bet on the event of getting at least one 1 (ace) in four rolls of a dice. As a more trying variation, two die were rolled 24 times with a bet on having at least one double ace.
1719 (Apr 25):[Money] Robinson Crusoe, a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published. The first edition credited the work's protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading many readers to believe he was a real person and the book a travelogue of true incidents.
1720: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] The dominant period of the Dutch Guilder concludes as the currency enters decline [[23:25](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=1405)].
1720: Administrative center of the Malwa (central India) was shifted to Indore city under the Holkars of the Maratha Empire (Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I, his commander Malhar Rao Holkar as the Subhedar (Governor) of the province.).
Indore is the largest city and commercial hub of Central Indian state Madhya Pradesh. Automobile, pharmaceutical, software, retail, textile trading and real estate are some of the major industrial sectors of the city.
1722: The Nawab of Awadh or the Nawab of Oudh was the title of the rulers who governed the state of Oudh or Awadh in India during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Nawabs of Awadh belonged to a dynasty of Qaraqoyunlu origin from Nishapur, Iran. In 1724, Nawab Sa'adat Khan established the Oudh State.
Indore is the largest city and commercial hub of Central Indian state Madhya Pradesh. Automobile, pharmaceutical, software, retail, textile trading and real estate are some of the major industrial sectors of the city.
1722: The Nawab of Awadh or the Nawab of Oudh was the title of the rulers who governed the state of Oudh or Awadh in India during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Nawabs of Awadh belonged to a dynasty of Qaraqoyunlu origin from Nishapur, Iran. In 1724, Nawab Sa'adat Khan established the Oudh State.
1723:[US][Economy] The Rockefeller family originated in the Rhineland region in Germany and can be traced to the town Neuwied in the early 17th century. The American family branch is descended from Johann Peter Rockefeller (1681-1763), who migrated from the Rhineland to Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania around 1723. In the US, he became a plantation owner and landholder in Somerville, and Amwell, New Jersey.
1726: The Golden Age of Piracy ended after 66 years.
1726 (Mar 20): Issac Newton died aged 84 at Kensington, Middlesex, England. He contributed to the Physics, Natural philosophy, Alchemy, Theology, Mathematics, Astronomy, and Economics.
1727: Royal Bank of Scotland.
1726: The Golden Age of Piracy ended after 66 years.
1726 (Mar 20): Issac Newton died aged 84 at Kensington, Middlesex, England. He contributed to the Physics, Natural philosophy, Alchemy, Theology, Mathematics, Astronomy, and Economics.
1727: Royal Bank of Scotland.
1727:[India] Shri Kamlabhavani Mata Mandir: A significant temple built by Rao Raje Nimbalkar in 1727, also known as Shri Kamaladevi Temple. Karmala is a taluka (administrative subdivision) and a city in the Solapur district of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is known for the Shri Kamlabhavani Mata Mandir, the Karmala Fort, and has a postal code of 413203.
1728:[India] Through relentless campaigns and strategic alliances, Chhatrasal consolidated his power over Bundelkhand. His kingdom, by the 1720s, had become a symbol of defiance against the Mughal Empire. Despite facing numerous challenges, including the formidable siege by Muhammad Khan Bangash in 1728, Chhatrasal's indomitable spirit never wavered. His fortitude in the face of adversity was instrumental in preserving the sovereignty of his kingdom. The support he garnered from his subjects was evidence of his leadership and the legitimacy of his rule.
1729:The alliance with the Marathas, forged through shrewd diplomacy and mutual interests, was a cornerstone of Chhatrasal's defense strategy. He had given the hand of his daughter, Mastani in marriage to the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I. In 1729, when Peshwa Baji Rao I came to his aid during the siege of Jaitpur, it marked a pivotal moment in Bundelkhand's history. The Maratha cavalry, renowned for their agility and combat prowess, played a decisive role in lifting the siege. This collaboration not only secured Bundelkhand's independence but also strengthened its ties with the rising Maratha power.
1730s:As it turns out, Poha initially originated in Maharashtra. Under the regime of the Holkars and the Scindias, the coloquial dish gained widespread appeal amongst the people. When the rulers came from Maharashtra to Madhya Pradesh, they took over Indore and brought with them Poha and Shrikhand, among other things.
1730: Classical period of Music started in Western music in Europe. Instead of existing Polyphony music, Homophony was experimented.
This taste for structural clarity began to affect music, which moved away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque period toward a style known as homophony, in which the melody is played over a subordinate harmony. This move meant that chords became a much more prevalent feature of music, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part. As a result, the tonal structure of a piece of music became more audible.
1730: The idea contained within the Z-transform is also known in mathematical literature as the method of generating functions which can be traced back as early as 1730 when it was introduced by de Moivre in conjunction with probability theory.
1730: Classical period of Music started in Western music in Europe. Instead of existing Polyphony music, Homophony was experimented.
This taste for structural clarity began to affect music, which moved away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque period toward a style known as homophony, in which the melody is played over a subordinate harmony. This move meant that chords became a much more prevalent feature of music, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part. As a result, the tonal structure of a piece of music became more audible.
1730: The idea contained within the Z-transform is also known in mathematical literature as the method of generating functions which can be traced back as early as 1730 when it was introduced by de Moivre in conjunction with probability theory.
1730: Dungarpur's rise to tourist fame is thanks to the exceptional architecture of its palaces and royal residences. These stone structures are adorned with 'jharokhas' (windows)and built in a style that was born during the times of Maharawal Shiv Singh (1730-1785 AD). - Mountain City of Rajasthan.
1731:First monarch: Malhar Rao Holkar I; Last monarch: Yashwantrao Holkar II; Formation: 2 November 1731; Abolition: 26 June 1948; Residence: Rajwada, Indore. The Holkars (pronunciation: [ɦo(ː)ɭkəɾ]) or the House of Holkars were the ruling house of the Indore State of the Maratha Confederacy, and earlier held the rank of Subahdar under Peshwa Baji Rao I of the Maratha Empire. When the Maratha Confederacy began to weaken due to internal clashes, the Holkars declared themselves the rulers of Indore in Central India, existing as an autonomous member of the Maratha Confederacy until 1818. Later, their kingdom became a princely state under the British protection. The Holkars were of Nikhar Gadaria-Dhangar origin. (Maharashtra)
1731:Malhar Rao Holkar (1694–1766), a Maratha chief serving under Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, established the dynasty's rule over Indore. In the 1720s, he led Maratha armies in the Malwa region, and in 1733 was granted 9 parganas in the vicinity of Indore by the Maratha Empire. The township of Indore already existed as an independent principality established by Nandlal Mandloi of Kampel. Nandlal Mandloi was won over by the Maratha forces and he allowed them to camp across the Khan River. In 1734, Malhar Rao established a camp later called Malharganj. In 1747, he began construction of his royal palace, the Rajwada. By the time of his death, he ruled much of Malwa, and was acknowledged as one of the five virtually independent rulers of the Maratha Empire.
1731:The Scindia dynasty was founded by Ranoji Scindia, a personal servant and soldier of Peshwa Bajirao I. Ranoji prospered early under Bajirao because of the favorable circumstances created by the appointment of Bajirao as the Peshwa at the age of twenty. This had evoked jealousy from senior officials like Anant Ram Sumant, Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi, Khanderao Dabhade and Kanhoji Bhosle. This led Bajirao to promote as commanders of his troops talented young men who were barely out of their teens such as Malhar Rao Holkar, the Pawar (Puar) brothers, Pilaji Jadhav, Fateh Singh Bhosale and Ranoji. None of these men belonged to families that held hereditary Deshmukhi rights under earlier rulers such as the Deccan Sultanates.The Shindes or Scindias had served as shiledars (cavalrymen) under the Bahmani Sultanate and played an important role in the state of affairs and held Patilki of Kumberkerrab. (Poha)
1731:[Who] Maharaja Chhatrasal's legacy as an unconquered king is a narrative of resilience and strategic brilliance. His life was marked by 52 major battles, none of which he lost, earning him the title 'Bundela Kesari' (The Lion of Bundelkhand). His story continues to inspire, embodying the spirit of independence and the enduring will to resist subjugation. Chhatrasal's kingdom, a bastion of freedom in the face of imperial expansion, left an unforgettable mark on the history of Bundelkhand and India.
1731:Ranoji Shinde (1700-1745; reign: 1731-1745) was the founder of the Scindia dynasty, a Maratha clan that produced outstanding Maratha military commanders during the 18th century. Later the Scindia served as vassals of the British from the northern Princely state of Gwalior.
1733:[Religion] Sikhs have been concentrated in the Punjab region of South Asia. Before its conquest by the British, the region around Punjab had been ruled by the confederacy of Sikh Misls. The Misls ruled over the eastern Punjab from 1733 to 1799, until their confederacy was unified into the Sikh Empire by Maharajah Ranjit Singh from 1799 to 1849.
1733:[History][India] Decline of the Mughals & Rise of Regional Powers (Early 18th Century): Following Aurangzeb's death (1707), the Mughal Empire weakened. Regional powers such as the Marathas, Nizams, Nawabs of Bengal, and Sikhs gained autonomy, fragmenting political authority.
1734:[Travel][India][RJ] Nahargarh Fort sits proudly on a ridge of the Aravalli Hills, creating an impressive northern backdrop to the city of Jaipur. It was constructed during the reign of Jai Singh in 1734, and was later expanded in 1868.
1735: G. Brandt proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal, Cobalt and not bismuth as thought previously.
1735: G. Brandt proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal, Cobalt and not bismuth as thought previously.
1735: 10 Downing Street, the locale of British prime ministers since 1735, vies with the White House as being the most important political building anywhere in the world in the modern era. Behind its black door have been taken the most important decisions affecting Britain for the last 275 years.
1736: Lovji Nusserwanjee Wadia (1702–1774), shipwright, founded Wadia Group in Surat. The family is related to Jinnah family, through Dina Jinnah (Neville's wife), the daughter of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was the founder of Pakistan.
1736:[crime] 17th–18th Centuries (The Gin Craze in Britain): Unlicensed gin shops, cellars, and "flash houses" proliferate in London. Parliament passes the Gin Acts (beginning in 1736) to curb the dangerous surge of underground sales in illicit dens. Open Social Hubs to Criminal Hideouts: Shifted dramatically whenever governments levied heavy taxes or outright banned alcohol, turning neighborhood gathering places into secretive criminal enterprises.
1737:[[History] The year 1737 was not a MahaKumbh Mela year (which follows a 144-year rare astronomical cycle with recent occurrences like 1881 and 2025), but it is famous in Indian history for Peshwa Baji Rao I’s lightning raid on Delhi.
1737 (Mar): Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I led a swift cavalry force of about 50,000 troops from Pune, bypassing standard Mughal routes through Jat and Mewati territories to catch the capital completely off guard.
1737 (Mar 28): the Marathas defeated the imperial Mughal forces led by Mir Hasan Khan Koka near Talkatora on the outskirts of Delhi. The raid caused massive panic, forcing Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah to take refuge inside the Red Fort. Baji Rao did not occupy the city, choosing instead to display Maratha military dominance before withdrawing—a strategic masterclass that signaled the decline of Mughal authority in northern India.
1738:[Music] Whether that is true or not, modern research suggests that the tabla were invented in the first half of the 18th century (about 1738) by a drummer named Amir Khusru, who was instructed to develop a more subtle and melodic percussion instrument that could accompany the new style of music called Khayal.
1738:[Maths] Some authors attribute the credit for the discovery of the normal distribution to de Moivre, who in 1738 published in the second edition of his "The Doctrine of Chances" the study of the coefficients in the binomial expansion of (a + b)n. De Moivre proved that the middle term in this expansion has the approximate magnitude of 2^{n}/{\sqrt {2\pi n}}}, and that "If m or 1/2 n be a Quantity infinitely great, then the Logarithm of the Ratio, which a Term distant from the middle by the Interval ℓ, has to the middle Term, is (−2ℓℓ)/n. Although this theorem can be interpreted as the first obscure expression for the normal probability law, Stigler points out that de Moivre himself did not interpret his results as anything more than the approximate rule for the binomial coefficients, and in particular de Moivre lacked the concept of the probability density function.
1739 (Mar):[India] Emperor Nader Shah, the Shah of Iran (1736–47) and the founder of the Afsharid dynasty, invaded Northern India, eventually attacking Delhi.
1739:[History][India] Battle of Vasai (1739): A major victory against the Portuguese, led by Chimaji Apa, involving a massive siege.
1739:[crime] 1739 – Colonial America: Counterfeiting of paper currency grew widespread. Benjamin Franklin introduced nature printing (using leaf impressions to create unique patterns on bills) to deter forgeries. Isaac Newton also fought counterfeiters relentlessly as Master of the British Royal Mint.
1740: Moradabad, in Uttar Pradesh, was founded around 1625 by Rustam Khan, the governor of Katehr, who named it after the imperial prince Murad Bakhsh. The Afghan Rohillas acquired Moradabad in 1740 and controlled the city until 1773 when it passed to control of the Nawab of Awadh. Nawab Shuja ud-Daula of Awadh (r.1753-1775) subsequently ceeded part of his territory including Moradabad to the Britsh in 1801.
1740: The vizir, Ghazi-ud-din founded the city of Ghaziabad.
1740: The Thugs in India (until 1840) operate as a large, quasi-religious network strangling and robbing road travelers before colonial suppression.
1741:[Music] The Goldberg Variations, BWV 988, is a musical composition for keyboard by Johann Sebastian Bach, consisting of an aria and a set of thirty variations. First published in 1741, it is named after Johann Gottlieb Goldberg, who may also have been the first performer of the work. Wikipedia
1743: kelvin (K) was first defined as 'The centigrade scale is obtained by assigning 0 °C to the freezing point of water and 100 °C to the boiling point of water.'
1743 (Oct 21): Franklin deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept that greatly influenced meteorology.
Composer: Johann Sebastian Bach; Composed: 1741; Key: G major
1741:[History][India] Third Significant Battles in South Indian History: Battle of Colachel (1741): Travancore forces under King Marthanda Varma defeated the Dutch East India Company.
1743 (Oct 21): Franklin deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept that greatly influenced meteorology.
1743:[Travel][India][RJ] The Jagmandir Palace was built by one of the queens of Kota between 1743 and 1745, and is situated in the middle of the Kishore Sagar Lake. Built in red sandstone, it is a monument of exquisite beauty.
1743:[Education][US][Public] University of Delaware founded.
1743: Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (/ləˈvwɑːzieɪ/ lə-VWAH-zee-ay; French: [ɑ̃twan lɔʁɑ̃ də lavwazje]; 26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794), also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution, was a French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology.
1744: Euler, followed by Lagrange, had started looking for solutions of differential equations in the form 
(history of Laplace transform)
1745: Leyden Jar.
1745: Franklin started exploring the phenomenon of electricity when he heard of the Leyden jar. Franklin proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (as electricity was called then), but the same "fluid" under different pressures. He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively, and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.
1745: The Jacobite Uprising of 1745, a civil war fought in Great Britain, impacted new world economy.
1745 (Jun 8): Caspar Wessel, the first person to describe the geometrical interpretation of complex numbers as points in the complex plane was born at Vestby, Norway.
1746: The French attack and capture of Madras in 1746 forced the British hand. In 1757, the British decided to raise well-trained military units to conduct operations, conquer territory, and force allegiance from local rulers.
1746 (Jun 14): Colin Maclaurin died aged 48 at Edinburgh, Scotland. He was a Scottish mathematician who made important contributions to geometry and algebra. The Maclaurin series, a special case of the Taylor series, is named after him.
1746:[Garment] Plaid banned by the British for four decades after Scottish Rebellion.
(history of Laplace transform)1745: Leyden Jar.
1745: Franklin started exploring the phenomenon of electricity when he heard of the Leyden jar. Franklin proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (as electricity was called then), but the same "fluid" under different pressures. He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively, and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.
1745: The Jacobite Uprising of 1745, a civil war fought in Great Britain, impacted new world economy.
1745 (Jun 8): Caspar Wessel, the first person to describe the geometrical interpretation of complex numbers as points in the complex plane was born at Vestby, Norway.
1746: The French attack and capture of Madras in 1746 forced the British hand. In 1757, the British decided to raise well-trained military units to conduct operations, conquer territory, and force allegiance from local rulers.
1746 (Jun 14): Colin Maclaurin died aged 48 at Edinburgh, Scotland. He was a Scottish mathematician who made important contributions to geometry and algebra. The Maclaurin series, a special case of the Taylor series, is named after him.
1746:[Garment] Plaid banned by the British for four decades after Scottish Rebellion.
1747:[Space][India]Michael Topping (1747–96) as an astronomer at IIA.
1748: Benjamin Franklin constructed a multiple plate capacitor, that he called an "electrical battery" (not to be confused with Volta's pile) by placing eleven panes of glass sandwiched between lead plates, suspended with silk cords and connected by wires.
1748: "Time is Money" The phrase is usually credited to Benjamin Franklin, who used it in an essay (Advice to a Young Tradesman, 1748). The actual phrase was recorded in 1719 in the magazine The Free-Thinker.
1748: Platinum. First description of a metal found in South American gold was in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger. Ulloa published his findings in 1748, but Sir Charles Wood also investigated the metal in 1741. First reference to it as a new metal was made by William Brownrigg in 1750.
1748: In the first volume of his fundamental text 'Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum', published in 1748, Euler gave essentially the same definition of a function as his teacher Bernoulli, as an expression or formula involving variables and constants e.g., x^{2}+3x+2}.
1749: The principle of the lightning rod was first detailed by Benjamin Franklin in Pennsylvania.
1749 (Mar 23): Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace was born at Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy, France.
1747:[edu] The École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (National School of Bridges and Highways) was established in France, marking the first formal school dedicated to civilian public works engineering. Civil engineering as an academic degree began in 18th-century France with the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (1747), followed by military schools like West Point (1802), and the first formal civilian civil engineering degrees awarded by the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.
1748: "Time is Money" The phrase is usually credited to Benjamin Franklin, who used it in an essay (Advice to a Young Tradesman, 1748). The actual phrase was recorded in 1719 in the magazine The Free-Thinker.
1748: Platinum. First description of a metal found in South American gold was in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger. Ulloa published his findings in 1748, but Sir Charles Wood also investigated the metal in 1741. First reference to it as a new metal was made by William Brownrigg in 1750.
1748: In the first volume of his fundamental text 'Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum', published in 1748, Euler gave essentially the same definition of a function as his teacher Bernoulli, as an expression or formula involving variables and constants e.g., x^{2}+3x+2}.
1748:[Culture][Kinky] slang for vagina - Cockpit
1748:[UK] Lewis Paul had invented a machine for carding in 1748. Arkwright made improvements to this machine and in 1775 took out a patent for a new carding engine, which converted raw cotton to a continuous skein prior to spinning. The machine used a succession of uneven rollers rotating at increasingly higher speeds to draw out the roving, before applying a twist via a bobbin-and-flyer mechanism. It could make cotton thread thin and strong enough for the warp threads of cloth.
Arkwright had an aptitude for both technology and practical business. He was well aware that the technology of weaving cloth was more advanced than that of spinning thread, creating a bottleneck in the supply chain for the textile industry. The result was a great demand for high-quality yarn to be used as warp.
1748 (Aug 20):[History][India]The Battle of Bagru was a military engagement fought between multiple Indian kingdoms in 1748 near the town of Bagru, Jaipur, India. The battle was fought during a succession crisis following the death of Jai Singh II, which left Jaipur without effective leadership.
1748:[ety] The publication of Hafnia Hodierna by Lauritz de Thurah documented the grand architecture and royal buildings of the Danish capital during the 18th century. (Hafnia /Copenhegen, Denmark). Dive into Copenhagen's medieval history (e.g., wars with the Hanseatic League)
1749 (Mar 23): Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace was born at Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy, France.
1749:[Who] Horace Walpole (1717-1797) was a man of remarkably diverse talents: novelist, art historian, designer and politician. He was also a prolific letter writer, and many of his famous phrases from his correspondence live on in the mind, and still have relevance for our world today. Ahead of our public lecture series celebrating his legacy, here are five of the most memorable.
1749: Strawberry Hill House was built by Horace Walpole beginning in 1749 as a lifetime project that continued until 1790, transforming a 17th-century cottage into a prominent Gothic Revival villa and the birthplace of the "Strawberry Hill Gothic" architectural style.
1750s:[Space] Some constellations are no longer recognized by the IAU, but may appear in older star charts and other references. Most notable is Argo Navis, which was one of Ptolemy's original 48 constellations. In the 1750s the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille divided this into three separate constellations: Carina, Puppis, and Vela. 50 constellations.
1750s: Foundations of Birla family began from Seth Bhudharmal, a member of the Maheshwari Marwari community from Pilani in the westerly state of Rajasthan. His great grandson, Shiv Narain Birla, traded in cotton and laid the foundation of the family's future business success by moving to Bombay in 1863 and establishing Shivnarayan Baldevdas a trading house in Bombay in 1884.
1749:[Travel][India][RJ] Ishwar Lat, is a 60 feet high grand minaret in Jaipur. Also called 'Swarg Suli' or 'heaven piercing minaret', this tower near Tripolia Gate was built by Raja Ishwari Singh in 1749 A.D to commemorate a grand victory. Ishwar Lat offers a breath-taking view of Jaipur.
1749 (Mar 23):[Research][Maths] Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace (/ləˈplɑːs/; French: [pjɛʁ simɔ̃ laplas]; 23 March 1749 – 5 March 1827) was a French scholar and polymath whose work was important to the development of engineering, mathematics, statistics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. Born 23 March 1749 Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy, Kingdom of France Died 5 March 1827 (aged 77) Paris, Kingdom of France.
1750s:[UK] The First Industrial Revolution began in England in about 1750–1760 that lasted to sometime between 1820 and 1840. It is one of the most distinguished turning points in human history.
1750s: Patparganj was a flourishing town and an important grain market of Delhi under the Mughal reign of Ahmad Shah, where wholesale grain merchants stayed and large enclosures were built to store grain from the doab region and ferried across Yamuna River into Paharganj market, and the walled city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) markets.
1750: "On Stranger Tides" is placed at this year.
1750: Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm that appeared capable of becoming a lightning storm.
175x: Phlogiston, a fire-like element supposed by 18th-century chemists to exist in all combustible bodies, and to be released in combustion. (Oxygen?)
1751: Nickel. Found by attempting to extract copper from the mineral known as fake copper (now known as niccolite)
1751: The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie (Encyclopaedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, it was compiled by Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert (until 1759), and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers and it helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. The work consisted of 28 volumes, with 71,818 articles and 3,129 illustrations. The first seventeen volumes were published between 1751 and 1765; eleven volumes of plates were finished by 1772. Engraver Robert Bénard provided at least 1,800 plates for the work. The objective of the editors of the Encyclopédie was to gather all the knowledge in the world, Diderot and D'Alembert knew they would need various contributors to help them with their project. Many of the philosophes (intellectuals of the French Enlightenment) contributed to the Encyclopédie, including Diderot himself, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu. The most prolific contributor was Louis de Jaucourt, who wrote 17,266 articles between 1759 and 1765, or about eight per day, representing a full 25% of the Encyclopédie. The publication became a place where these contributors could share their ideas and interests.
1752: No more use of Julian Calander, next date to 3 Sep 1752 was 13th Sep (10 day offset) for UK calendars.
1750: "On Stranger Tides" is placed at this year.
1750: Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm that appeared capable of becoming a lightning storm.
175x: Phlogiston, a fire-like element supposed by 18th-century chemists to exist in all combustible bodies, and to be released in combustion. (Oxygen?)
1751: Nickel. Found by attempting to extract copper from the mineral known as fake copper (now known as niccolite)
1751: The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie (Encyclopaedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, it was compiled by Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert (until 1759), and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers and it helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. The work consisted of 28 volumes, with 71,818 articles and 3,129 illustrations. The first seventeen volumes were published between 1751 and 1765; eleven volumes of plates were finished by 1772. Engraver Robert Bénard provided at least 1,800 plates for the work. The objective of the editors of the Encyclopédie was to gather all the knowledge in the world, Diderot and D'Alembert knew they would need various contributors to help them with their project. Many of the philosophes (intellectuals of the French Enlightenment) contributed to the Encyclopédie, including Diderot himself, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu. The most prolific contributor was Louis de Jaucourt, who wrote 17,266 articles between 1759 and 1765, or about eight per day, representing a full 25% of the Encyclopédie. The publication became a place where these contributors could share their ideas and interests.
1752: No more use of Julian Calander, next date to 3 Sep 1752 was 13th Sep (10 day offset) for UK calendars.
1752:While the Gregorian calendar was introduced in 1582, it wasn't immediately adopted by all countries. Some countries, particularly Protestant and Orthodox ones, didn't switch until later. For example, Great Britain and its colonies adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752, skipping 11 days.
1752: Lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall).
1753: Bismuth. Definitively identified by Claude François Geoffroy in 1753.
1753: Bismuth. Definitively identified by Claude François Geoffroy in 1753.
1754:[History][India]The Battle of Kumher was a conflict between the Kingdom of Bharatpur, led by Maharaja Suraj Mal, and the Mughal Empire, supported by its allies, including the Marathas
1755: Magnesium. Black observed that magnesia alba (MgO) was not quicklime (CaO). Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from magnesia in 1808.1755:[Space] Lacaille's catalogue contained 42 (space) objects, and so he added some bright, well
1755:[Culture][Kinky] slang for boobs - Cupid's Kettledrums
1756 (Jan 27): Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition resulted in more than over 800 works of virtually every genre of his time. Many of these compositions are acknowledged as pinnacles of the symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral repertoire. Mozart was among the greatest composers in the history of Western music, and his elder colleague Joseph Haydn wrote: "posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years". He died age 35 on 1791 (Dec 5)
1756 (May 17): The Seven Years' War was a global conflict that took place between 1756 and 1763, arising largely from issues left unresolved by the 1740 to 1748 War of the Austrian Succession. The first was colonial rivalries between Britain and France, particularly in North America. The other was a struggle for supremacy between Prussia and Austria, which wanted to regain Silesia after it was captured by Prussia in the previous war.
--------------------------------------------- Seven Years' War started ----------------------------------------------
1756: In 1756, the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj Ud Daulah, attacked the first Fort William, temporarily conquered the city, and changed its name to Alinagar. This led the British to build a new fort in the Maidan (now known by Fort Williams ).(CSE)
------------------------------------------- Modern India - Starts --------------------------------------------------
1757: Based on typical UPSC syllabus structuring, the Modern Indian History period is generally considered to begin in the mid-18th century, marked by the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of British political influence, solidified by the Battle of Plassey (1757) and Battle of Buxar (1764).
1757: The Madras Army was established as the Presidency of Madras Army of the Honourable East India Company. It is one of the three presidencies of British India within the British Empire. All the 3 armies belonged to the East India Company until the Government of India Act 1858 (passed in the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857) transferred all three presidencies to the direct authority of the British Crown.
1757:[History][India] The first significant treaties between the British and Indian powers primarily occurred in the mid-18th century as the East India Company transitioned from a trading entity to a political power. The Treaty of Alinagar (Feb 1757) followed the Battle of Plassey, while the Treaty of Allahabad (1765) was crucial, granting the British Diwani rights to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
1757 (Feb):Treaty of Alinagar: Signed between Robert Clive and Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah, this allowed the British to fortify Calcutta and trade freely.
1757 (Jun 23): Battle of Plassey, Bengal (some 150 kilometers north of Calcutta). The forces of the British East India Company, under Robert Clive, defeated Siraj Ud Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal. It marked the beginning of Britis EIC's firm foothold in eastern India. East India Company started to rule in India.
1757:[History][India] Expansion of British Power (Late 18th - Early 19th Century): The British expanded their territory through treaties (Subsidiary Alliance) and wars (Anglo-Maratha, Anglo-Mysore, and Anglo-Sikh wars).
1757: Joint-stock colony established by the East India Company in India and regulated by the British Parliament. Ruled for 101 years.
1757: Indravati by Nur Muhammad was published in Awadhi.
1757:[crime] During the British Colonial Period in India (1757-1947), systemic structural displacements occurred via revenue acts like the Zamindari System. Land was auctioned to intermediaries who leased it to tenants, which triggered mass, exploitative evictions of smallholder peasants who defaulted on steep colonial taxes.
1758:[SpaceX][Meteor] Halley's Comet is the only known short-period comet that is consistently visible to the naked eye from Earth,[16] appearing every 72–80 years,[17] though with the majority of recorded apparitions (25 of 30) occurring after 75–77 years. the Perseids (August), the Geminids (December), the Orionids (October), the Lyrids (April), and the Quadrantids (January)
1760s: The Industrial Revolution (90 years) was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. Steam, Water Supply, and Mechanical Alternatives (the first industrial revolution) - (the most distinguished turning points in human history)
1760s: The British Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) brought innovative mechanisation and deep social change. The process saw the invention of steam-powered machines, which were used in factories in ever-growing urban centres.
1760s: However, other figures like James Watt, who improved the steam engine, and Samuel Slater, who brought British textile technology to the United States, also played crucial roles in the Industrial Revolution. Therefore, it's more accurate to say that the Industrial Revolution was a period of collective innovation and change, rather than the work of one individual.
1760s: The activity of sand mining began with humanity's need for sand, primarily for construction and industrial purposes, which intensified with global urbanization and infrastructure development following the industrial revolution, particularly in the 20th century, and evolved into a large-scale industry involving extraction from natural sources like rivers, beaches, and offshore areas.
1760:[History][India] Second Significant Battles in South Indian History - Battle of Wandiwash (1760): A decisive battle in the Third Carnatic War where British forces defeated the French, establishing British supremacy in South India.
1761:[History][India] Biggest Battle in Maratha History - The Third Battle of Panipat (January 14, 1761) is the biggest and most pivotal battle in Maratha history, involving over 125,000 troops and resulting in immense casualties. It was a massive confrontation between the Maratha Empire and the Afghan Durrani Empire, leading to a devastating loss that severely weakened Maratha power.
1761 (Jun 12):[History][India] The Capture of Agra Fort ended a month-long siege by Jat ruler Maharaja Suraj Mal on 12 June 1761, marking the annexation of Agra into Bharatpur. After a one-month siege of Agra, the Mughal army, led by Mirza Fazilka Khan, surrendered to the Jat army. The Jats seized the old capital of the Mughal Empire.
1762: [India] Bishop Heber Higher Secondary school, Tiruchirappalli
1763 (Jan 1): Seven Years' War: Result: Anglo-Prussian coalition victory:, Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1762), Treaty of Hamburg (1762), Treaty of Paris (1763), Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763)
Territorial changes: Status quo ante bellum in Europe:, Transfer of colonial possessions between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal., France cedes its possessions east of the Mississippi River, Canada (except Saint-Pierre and Miquelon), the island of Grenada, and the Northern Circars in India to Great Britain., France cedes Louisiana and its territory west of the Mississippi River to Spain., Spain cedes Florida to Great Britain., Four "neutral" Caribbean islands divided between Britain (St. Vincent, Tobago, Dominica) and France (St. Lucia)
1763: [India] St. Johns Vestry Anglo Indian School, Tiruchirappalli.
1763:[History][India] The state took its name from its principal city and capital, Patiala, from Punjabi patti ("strip of land") and ala (referring to Ala Singh), together meaning a strip of land belonging to Ala Singh, founder of the city and state.
1763:[History][India] Patiala founded. Ala Singh (1691 – 7 August 1765) was the founder and first ruler of Patiala from 1763 until his death in 1765. Born into the Sikh Phulkian dynasty, Singh rose to power through key battles in his early life and expanded his territory in Punjab. As an adult, Singh was constantly engaged in battles and war. Through warfare and diplomacy, Singh began to acquire territory that would form the foundations of Patiala State. In 1763, he established the city of Patiala and founded Patiala State. Singh, at various times, had both adversarial and allied relations with the Afghan Durrani Empire. Ahmed Shah Durrani, the King of the Durrani Empire, granted Singh the title of Raja and other royal powers. After being granted the title of Raja, Singh became the first Sikh monarch in history. Much of his personal success has been attributed to the influence and connections of his wife, Mai Fatto.
1763:[History][India] The ruling house of Jind belonged to the Phulkian dynasty, sharing with the Nabha rulers a common ancestor named Tiloka. Tiloka was the eldest son of Phul Sidhu of the Phulkian Misl. The Jind rulers descended from Sukhchain Singh, the younger son of Tiloka. The Jind State was founded in 1763 by Gajpat Singh after the fall of Sirhind. Other sources give a date of 1768 for the founding of the state.
-------------------------------------------- Seven Years' War halted -------------------------------------------------
1764 (Oct 22): Battle of Buxar, Bengal. the East India Company army defeated Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.After his defeat, the emperor granted the Company the right to the "collection of Revenue" in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, known as "Diwani" to the Company. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–1799) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) led to control of the vast regions of India.
1764:[Who][Book] The Castle of Otranto is a novel by Horace Walpole. First published in 1764, it is generally regarded as the first Gothic novel. In the second edition, Walpole applied the word 'Gothic' to the novel in the subtitle – A Gothic Story. Wikipedia Originally published: 1764 Author: Horace Walpole Characters: Hippolita, Friar Jerome, Theodore, Matilda, Isabella, Bianca, Frederic, Jaquez, Manfred, Conrad, Diego Genres: Gothic fiction, Novel Original language: English (Quote: The world is a comedy to those that think; a tragedy to those that feel.) This famous observation is from a letter written by Horace Walpole, expressing his cynical yet intellectual stance on life and society. For Walpole, the world's absurdities and follies, when viewed through an intellectual lens, could be amusing, like a comedy. However, if one became too emotionally invested, these same events would appear tragic and despairing.
1765: The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution which occurred in colonial North America between 1765 and 1783. The American Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War with the assistance of France, winning independence from Great Britain and establishing the United States of America.
1765 (Aug):[History][India] Treaty of Allahabad: Signed by Lord Clive, Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, and Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Oudh), this treaty gave the East India Company the legal right to manage revenue (Diwani). It was crucial, granting the British Diwani rights to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
1765(Oct):[COE] In October of 1765, delegates from 9 colonies met to issue petitions to the British Government denying Parliament's authority to tax the colonies.
1765:[Military][India] The oldest (and first) Cantonment area in Asia is Barrackpore Cantonment, established in 1765. It is located near Kolkata, West Bengal. Cantonments were initially established by the British to house military formations away from civilian towns. They are administered under the Union Government (Ministry of Defence).
1765:[Technology][Who] Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (French: [nisefɔʁ njɛps]; 7 March 1765 – 5 July 1833) was a French inventor and one of the earliest pioneers of photography.
--------------------------------------------- The American Revolution started -----------------------------------
1766: the Anglo-Mysore Wars started between the Kingdom of Mysore on the one hand, and the British East India Company (represented chiefly by the Madras Presidency), and Maratha Confederacy and the Nizam of Hyderabad on the other.
1766: Hydrogen. Cavendish was the first to distinguish H2 from other gases, although Paracelsus around 1500, Robert Boyle, and Joseph Priestley had observed its production by reacting strong acids with metals. Lavoisier named it in 1793.
1766: The modern postal system was estd. by Robert Clive in India.
1767: Expulsion of Burmese and reunification of Thailand.
1766: Hydrogen. Cavendish was the first to distinguish H2 from other gases, although Paracelsus around 1500, Robert Boyle, and Joseph Priestley had observed its production by reacting strong acids with metals. Lavoisier named it in 1793.
1766: The modern postal system was estd. by Robert Clive in India.
1767: Expulsion of Burmese and reunification of Thailand.
1767:The British sought to expand their control in Southern India, specifically for an overland connection between Madras and Bengal, and were alarmed by Hyder Ali's rapid rise and his strengthening ties with the French.
1767:Initially, the British and their allies pushed against Mysore. However, Hyder Ali's superior military strategy and diplomatic maneuvering allowed him to break the alliance between the British and the Nizam. He then took the offensive, advancing to the outskirts of Madras.
1767:[History][India] The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–1769) was a major conflict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore, led by Hyder Ali, and the British East India Company, which was allied with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas (though the alliance was shaky). Fought over territorial ambitions and British concerns regarding Mysore's growing power and French alliances, the war ended in a major victory for Hyder Ali, who dictated terms to the British at the gates of Madras.
1767:[Space] The Pleiades have long been known to be a physically related group of stars rather than any chance alignment. John Michell calculated in 1767 that the probability of a chance alignment of so many bright stars was only 1 in 500,000, and so surmised that the Pleiades and many other clusters of stars must be physically related. When studies were first made of the stars' proper motions, it was found that they are all moving in the same direction across the sky, at the same rate, further demonstrating that they were related.
1767:[UK][Who] Finally, in 1767, a breakthrough came when a Lancashire entrepreneur, Richard Arkwright (1732–92), devised a simple but remarkable spinning machine. Replacing the work of human hands, the water frame made it possible to spin cotton yarn more quickly and in greater quantities than ever before.
1767:[History][India] The first battle involving the Kingdom of Mysore - First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–1769): Battle of Chengam, Battle of Tiruvannamalai, Battle of Ooscota, Battle of Jadi Hanwati.
1767:[History][India] The Battle of Maonda and Mandholi was fought between the Rajput rulers of Jaipur and the Jat rulers of Bharatpur in 1767 in Rajasthan. Jawahar Singh of Bharatpur was leading an army back from Pushkar when the forces of Madho Singh of Jaipur met them by Maonda and Mandholi villages, near present-day Neem ka Thana.
1768 (Mar 21): Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier was born at Auxerre, Burgundy, Kingdom of France (now in Yonne, France).
1768: Nepali unification.
1768: Nepali unification.
1769:[History][India] First Anglo-Mysore war: Outcome - Treaty of Madras (1769): The humiliated British were forced to sign a defensive treaty on April 4, 1769. This treaty provided for: Mutual restitution of conquests (each side returned territory captured from the other). A defensive alliance, promising British aid to Hyder Ali if he was attacked by another power. The war was significant because it marked a major setback for the British, forcing them to recognize the military strength of Mysore and to rethink their strategy in South India.
1769: 1776:[Economics][Research] Turgot and Condillac emphasized value based on utility and scarcity. (marginal utility)
1769:[tour][de] Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm, Wörlitz, Germany - Wörlitz Palace: Built between 1769 and 1773, it is recognized as the first neoclassical country house built in Germany.Expansion: Over four decades, the project expanded to cover 142 square kilometers along the Elbe and Mulde rivers, integrating multiple parks, farm fields, and over 100 small buildings, bridges, and artificial ruins.UNESCO Status: The cultural landscape was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the year 2000 for its revolutionary design and embodiment of Enlightenment philosophy.
1770s:[mktg][biz][tour][mntngg] Pashtun merchant networks constitute one of the largest and most resilient transnational trading systems in Eurasian history, bridging the markets of Central Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East. Operating for centuries independently of traditional banking systems, these networks are deeply rooted in kinship, tribal trust, and the customary code of honor known as Pashtunwali.Historical Origins and EvolutionHistorically, Pashtun networks emerged from nomadic and semi-nomadic trading groups.The Pawindahs and Lohanis: In the 18th and 19th centuries, these nomadic merchant tribes managed seasonal caravans. They traveled through treacherous mountain passes (like the Khyber and Gomal passes) to transport horses, dried fruits, silks, and dyes between Central Asian hubs (Bukhara, Samarkand) and the plains of British India.The Kuchis: Over time, communities like the Kuchis became critical commercial conduits, physical links, and infrastructure links connecting regional markets like Kabul and Peshawar.Maritime Expansion: As early as the 15th century, Pashtun traders traveled as far as Sri Lanka (settling in areas like Batticaloa) and Southeast Asia, acting as commercial buffers and long-distance maritime merchants.Core Mechanisms of the NetworkPashtun merchant networks thrive across highly volatile borders without relying on formal institutional frameworks:The Code of Pashtunwali: Business relies strictly on an unwritten, honor-bound system. Personal reputation and trust (trustability) act as collateral. Breaking a contract results in severe social ostracization and tribal penalties.The Hawala System: Funds are moved seamlessly across international borders through an informal honor-based value transfer system, bypassing traditional banks and high transaction fees.Kinship Clusters: Multi-generational extended families split their operations geographically. One brother might manage logistics in Kandahar, another handles a wholesale warehouse in Karachi, and a cousin oversees retail distribution in the Gulf States or Europe.Modern Trade AdaptationsIn the 20th and 21st centuries, Pashtun merchant networks adapted to globalizing markets, shifting focus toward modern logistics, transport, and parallel/informal economies:The Transit Economy & Smuggling: Utilizing modern border configurations and special regulatory zones—such as Pakistan’s former Tribal Areas (FATA)—Pashtun traders established major hubs for the Afghan Transit Trade. Electronics, cosmetics, auto parts, and fabrics cross through Pakistan and Afghanistan, filtering across South Asia, Central Asia, and into China.Global Hubs (Yiwu to Dubai): Today, prominent Pashtun merchants maintain massive footprints in global trade junctions. For instance, in Yiwu, China, Afghan and Pashtun traders operate massive export-import firms. They coordinate the flow of manufactured goods into Central Asia and Russia.Recent Shift to Central AsiaGeopolitical disruptions, particularly the recurring border closures at major Pakistani-Afghan crossings like Torkham and Chaman, have forced the network to dynamically pivot:Bypassing Traditional Routes: Due to security risks, Pashtun merchants have increasingly adapted by rerouting commerce northward into Central Asian states like Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, as well as leveraging alternative paths through Iran's Chabahar port.Diverse Sourcing: Modern Pashtun traders have expanded their cargo lines radically—sourcing green tea from Vietnam, garments from South Korea, and palm-oil derivatives from Malaysia.Are you looking into a specific historical period of these networks, such as the colonial era trade via the Khyber Pass, or are you focusing on modern informal networks and the Hawala system?
1770:Yardley London is a traditional British brand that has been producing exquisite fragrances and care products since 1770. The company has its origins in the town of Yardley, which is renowned for its fine soaps and perfumes. Yardley London products are timelessly elegant and express the best of British culture.
1771: Oxygen, W. Scheele obtained it by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777. Joseph Priestley also prepared this new air by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777.
1771:[Space] Charles Messier measured the position of the cluster and included it as M45 in his catalogue of comet-like objects, published in 1771. Along with the Orion Nebula and the Praesepe cluster, Messier's inclusion of the Pleiades has been noted as curious, as most of Messier's objects were much fainter and more easily confused with comets—something that seems scarcely possible for the Pleiades. One possibility is that Messier simply wanted to have a larger catalogue than his scientific rival Lacaille, whose 1755 catalogue contained 42 objects, and so he added some bright, well-known objects to boost his list.
1771:[UK] Arkwright and John Smalley of Preston set up a small horse-driven factory at Nottingham. To obtain capital for expansion, Arkwright formed a partnership with Jedediah Strutt and Samuel Need, wealthy nonconformist hosiery manufacturers. In 1771, the partners built the world's first water-powered mill at Cromford, which covered both carding and spinning operations and employed 200 people.
1771:[UK] Sir Richard Arkwright (23 December 1732 – 3 August 1792) was an English inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution. He is credited as the driving force behind the development of the spinning frame, known as the water frame after it was adapted to use water power; and he patented a rotary carding engine to convert raw cotton to 'cotton lap' prior to spinning. He was the first to develop factories housing both mechanised carding and spinning operations.
1771 (Feb 10):[History][India] the forces of the Maratha Empire led by Mahadaji Shinde captured Delhi from the Rohillas and installed the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II on the throne of Delhi. The Marathas defeated Zabita Khan Rohilla who was put in charge by the Afghans.
1772:[US] The oldest US federal agency is the United States Postal Inspection Service, which can trace its origins back to 1772 according to Wikipedia. The U.S. Marshals Service is also very old, dating back to 1789, but the Postal Inspection Service has a continuous history of operation dating back further.
1772: the Anglo-Maratha Wars started.
1772: The East India Company Act 1
1772: The Bengal renaissance started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941). During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance in Europe during the 16th century, although Europeans of that age were not confronted with the challenge and influence of alien colonialism. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system, and religion.
1772: The East India Company Act 1
1772: The Bengal renaissance started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941). During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance in Europe during the 16th century, although Europeans of that age were not confronted with the challenge and influence of alien colonialism. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system, and religion.
1772:[crime][gov] Britain introduces the death penalty for armed and disguised highwaymen.
1773:[History][India] Treaty of Banaras (1773): An agreement between Warren Hastings and the Nawab of Oudh, Shuja-ud-Daulah, which strengthened the British position against the Marathas.
1773: There was great corruption in British Bengal because of the political patronage. In 1773, British parliament enacted the 'Regulating Act' in India which established the post of Governor General by dissolving the post of The Governor of Bengal. Warren Hastings was the first such Gov. Gen. to head Presidencies of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
1773: Regulating Act of 1773 (evolution of Indian constitution started.)
1773: Regulating Act of 1773 (evolution of Indian constitution started.)
1773:[COE] Boston people in America got angry with Britishers over taxation.
1773:[Env][APAC] [EMEA] [EU] [Culture][Travel][Aviation][Extreme] The Siberian crane was formally described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1773 and given the binomial name Grus leucogeranus. The specific epithet is derived from the classical Greek words leukos for "white" and geranos for a "crane". Ustad Mansur, a 17th-century court artist and singer of Jahangir, had illustrated a Siberian crane about 100 years earlier. The genus Megalornis was used for the cranes by George Robert Gray and this species was included in it, while Richard Bowdler Sharpe suggested a separation from Grus and used the genus Sarcogeranus.
1774: Warren Hastings further developed the postal system in India. Ministry of Communication-GoI, founded.
1774:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Robert Southey (/ˈsaʊði/ or /ˈsʌði/;[a] 12 August 1774 – 21 March 1843) was an English poet of the Romantic school, and Poet Laureate from 1813 until his death. A poet admired by Brontë.
1774(Oct 7):[India] The Rohilla State of Rampur was established by Pashtun leader, Nawab Faizullah Khan in the presence of British Commander Colonel Champion, and remained a pliant state under British protection thereafter. Pashtuns also known as Pakhtuns or Pathans, are an Iranian ethnic group who are native to the geographic region of Pashtunistan.
1774:[Maths] Although Gauss was the first to suggest the normal distribution law, Laplace made significant contributions. It was Laplace who first posed the problem of aggregating several observations in 1774, although his own solution led to the Laplacian distribution.
1775:[History] 5. The American Revolution (1775–1783) The American Revolution was a political upheaval that resulted in the thirteen American colonies gaining independence from British rule. It was driven by issues of taxation without representation, trade restrictions, and colonial autonomy. The revolution inspired future independence movements around the world, including the French Revolution (1789) and Latin American revolutions.
1775 (Mar 6):[History][India] Treaty of Surat (1775): An early treaty with Raghunathrao of the Maratha Empire (uncle of the murdered Peshwa Narayanrao), which initiated the First Anglo-Maratha War within 10 days of signing. The Treaty of Surat (March 6, 1775) was a pact between Raghunathrao and the British East India Company (Bombay Government), initiating the First Anglo-Maratha War. Raghunathrao gained 2,500 troops to secure his position as Peshwa in exchange for ceding strategic territories of Salsette and Bassein (Vasai) to the British. The British provided military aid to help Raghunathrao become Peshwa, in return for Salsette, Bassein, and revenue rights from Surat and Bharuch. This treaty directly triggered the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782) as it was opposed by the Maratha ministers in Pune (led by Nana Phadnavis) and later annulled by the Calcutta Council of the British East India Company.
1775 (Mar 15):The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) was the first conflict fought between the British East India Company and Maratha Empire in India. Result Inconclusive: Status quo ante bellum; Treaty of Salbai Location Pune, Indian subcontinent, Central India, Western India
1775: Bahadur Shah II (Zafar, meaning Victor18y), the last Mughal emperor was born in Delhi.
1775: [Art][Swiss] Joseph Mallord William Turner RA (23 April 1775 – 19 December 1851), known in his time as William Turner, was an English Romantic painter, printmaker and watercolourist. He is known for his expressive colourisations, imaginative landscapes and turbulent, often violent marine paintings. [Lake Lucerne through Turner's eyes.]
1775:[UK] To strengthen his position in relation to his many competitors and emulators, Arkwright obtained a "grand patent" in 1775, which he hoped would consolidate his position within the fast-growing cotton industry. Public opinion, however, was bitterly hostile to exclusive patents, and in 1781 Arkwright initiated legal proceedings to assert his rights. The case dragged on in court until 1785, when it was finally settled against him on the grounds that his specifications were deficient: the court had also heard assertions that the spinning frame was actually the invention of Arkwright's employee John Kay, or of Thomas Highs, Kay's previous employer.
1776:[Economics][Research] Turgot and Condillac emphasized value based on utility and scarcity. (marginal utility)
1776: The Declaration of Independence (1776), primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson, declared America’s break from Britain.
1776:[COE] the leaders of the 13 colonies decided they will not be called Britishers anymore, but Americans. This was led by Founding Fathers. George Washington crossing the Delaware river painting. - The declaration of freedom. Idea: the land of liberty. land for everyone.
1776: United States Declaration of Independence.
1776 (Mar 9):[Book] Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations.
1776:The treaty of Purandhar in Maharashtra/Gujarat.
1777 (Aug 14): Hans Christian Ørsted born at Rudkøbing, Denmark. He was a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields, which was the first connection found between electricity and magnetism. He is still known today for Oersted's Law.
1777:[India][FnB][UK] Major-general Sir David Ochterlony, 1st Baronet of Pitforthy, 1st Baronet of Ochterlony GCB was a Massachusetts born military officer of the East India Company in British India. He held the powerful post of British Resident to the Mughal court at Delhi. First resident of UK in Delhi.
1777: Corps of Engineers, one of the oldest arms of the Indian Army.
1777: Madame Marie Tussaud of France created her first wax sculpture of Voltaire.1777 (Aug 14): Hans Christian Ørsted born at Rudkøbing, Denmark. He was a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields, which was the first connection found between electricity and magnetism. He is still known today for Oersted's Law.
1777:[India][FnB][UK] Major-general Sir David Ochterlony, 1st Baronet of Pitforthy, 1st Baronet of Ochterlony GCB was a Massachusetts born military officer of the East India Company in British India. He held the powerful post of British Resident to the Mughal court at Delhi. First resident of UK in Delhi.
1777:[UK] After establishing the mill at Cromford, Arkwright returned to Lancashire and took up a lease of the Birkacre mill at Chorley, which was to become a catalyst for the town's growth into one of the most important industrialised towns of the Industrial Revolution. In 1777 Arkwright leased the Haarlem Mill in Wirksworth, Derbyshire, where he installed the first steam engine to be used in a cotton mill (this was used to replenish the millpond that drove the mill's waterwheel rather than to drive the machinery directly). He was invited to Scotland, where he assisted David Dale in establishing cotton mills at New Lanark. A large mill of Arkwright's at Birkacre in Lancashire, was destroyed in the anti-machinery riots of 1779.
1778:[Maths][Who] Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński, born in 1778, is credited with developing the Wronskian as a tool to analyze differential equations and the linear dependence of their solutions.
1779: British seized the French port of Mahé, India.
1779:[COE] topless painting; guillotone - killing machine. King Louis
1779:[Music] Mandolin´s modification made by Gaetano Vinaccia
1780s: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] Amsterdam loses its position as the financial center of Europe to London [[15:09](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=909)].
1780: Luigi Aloisio Galvani, the pioneer of bioelectromagnetics was an Italian physician, physicist, biologist and philosopher, who discovered animal electricity.1780s: Immanuel Kant (Germany), a philosopher who is considered the central figure of modern philosophy. Kant argued that fundamental concepts of the human mind structure human experience, that reason is the source of morality, that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment, that space and time are forms of our sensibility, and that the world as it is "in-itself" is unknowable.
1780: Second Anglo-Mysore War started between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company. At the time, Mysore was a key French ally in India, and the Franco–British war sparked Anglo–Mysorean hostilities in India.
1780: Mohammedan College of Calcutta, today known by Aliah University, historically known by Madrasah-i-Aliah or Calcutta Madrasah, the first educational institution set up in India by Warren Hastings, the then Governor General of Bengal Presidency.
1780:[Space][Crime] Mohr Observatory (1765) demolished in Jakarta, Indonesia
1780:[Women] Born in Ramnathpuram in 1730, Velu Nachiyar was the first queen to have ever actively opposed the British rule. She fought against the colonial rulers many years before the Sepoy Mutiny. In collaboration with Hyder Ali and Gopala Nayaker, she waged a war against the British and emerged victorious. Eventually she went on to produce the first human bomb as well as establish the first army of trained women soldiers in the late 1700s. Nachiyar was trained in many methods of combat, including war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam, horse riding, and archery. She was a scholar in many languages and was proficient in languages like French, English and Urdu. At the time of death of her husband, King of Sivagangai, she was drawn into the conflict. She escaped the battlefield with her daughter.
1780:[Business] Distilling was most likely brought to present-day Kentucky in the late 18th century by Scots, Scots-Irish, and other settlers (including English, Irish, Welsh, German, and French) who began to farm the area. The origin of bourbon as a distinct form of whiskey is not well documented and there are many conflicting legends and claims.
1780:[Business] (informally the Jameson Distillery) is a former Irish whiskey distillery and a tourist attraction located just off Smithfield Square in Dublin, Ireland. Jameson Distillery Bow St. is the original site where Jameson Irish Whiskey was distilled until 1971.
1780:[History][India] He had to buy peace with the Marathas for a sum of Rs. 36 lakh and another annual tribute. This angered Hyder Ali who started hating the British. When the English attacked Mahe, a French possession under Hyder Ali's dominion, he declared war on the English in 1780.
1780:[History][India] Battle of Pollilur (1780): A crushing victory for Hyder Ali over the British.
1781:[History][India] Battle of Porto Novo (1781): A significant victory for the British against Hyder Ali.
1781: (The new) Fort William is a fort built in Kolkata on the eastern banks of the River Hooghly during the early years of the Bengal Presidency of British India by Robert Clive using brick and mortar at a cost of approximately two million pounds. It was named after King William III of England and Ireland and II of Scotland.
1781:[Book] The Critique of Pure Reason is a book by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, in which the author seeks to determine the limits and scope of metaphysics.
1781(Apr 3):[Culture][Philosophy][India] Ghanshyam Pande born (Swaminarayan or Nilkanth Varni) - Akshardham Temple
1781:[Space] Uranus was discovered by Sir William Herschel. Herschel was probably the most famous astronomer of the 18th century. In addition to discovering the planet Uranus, he also observed and cataloged over 800 double stars and 2,500 nebulae. He was the first astronomer to correctly describe the spiral structure of our Milky Way Galaxy.
1782: the term “semiconducting” was used for the first time by Alessandro Volta.
1782:[History][India] The Treaty of Surat was largely superseded by the Treaty of Purandhar (1776), though the Bombay British government continued supporting Raghunathrao, leading to prolonged conflict that ended with the Treaty of Salbai in 1782.
1782:[Space] Edme-Sébastien Jeaurat then drew in 1782 a map of 64 stars of the Pleiades from his observations in 1779, which he published in 1786.
1782 (Jul 16):[Music][Art] Die Entführung aus dem Serail (German: [diː ʔɛntˈfyːʁʊŋ ʔaʊs dɛm zeˈʁaɪ]) (K. 384; The Abduction from the Seraglio; also known as Il Seraglio) is a singspiel in three acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The German libretto is by Gottlieb Stephanie, based on Christoph Friedrich Bretzner's Belmont und Constanze, oder Die Entführung aus dem Serail. The plot concerns the attempt of the hero Belmonte, assisted by his servant Pedrillo, to rescue his beloved Constanze from the seraglio of Pasha Selim. The work premiered on 16 July 1782 at the Vienna Burgtheater, with the composer conducting. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition and proficiency from an early age resulted in more than 800 works representing virtually every Western classical genre of his time.
1783:[Delhi] Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib was built in 1783 to mark the exact spot where Guru Tegh Bahadur was martyred.
1783:[US] The time taken for U.S. independence was roughly eight years, from the start of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 to the formal recognition of American independence by Great Britain with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. While the Declaration of Independence was adopted in 1776, signifying the colonies' intent to be free, the actual independence was won through the subsequent war and ultimately recognized by the British.
1783:[UK] Thames and Severn Connection: Historically linked by the Thames and Severn Canal (authorized in 1783), which bridged the Thames at Lechlade with the Severn system near Stroud.
----------------------------------- The American Revolution halted -----------------------------------------------
1784: Second Anglo-Mysore War halted, resulted in the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore, restoring the status quo antebellum under terms company officials such as Warren Hastings found extremely unfavourable.
1784: The India Act, 1784 established the principles of governance in India.
1784: The East India Company Act 2
1784 (Jan 15):
1784 (Aug 13): The East India Company Act 1784, also known as Pitt's India Act, was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain intended to address the shortcomings of the Regulating Act of 1773 by bringing the East India Company's rule in India under the control of the British Government.
1784: Industrial Revolution-1 was at its peak. Steam power for the mass.
1784:[Travel][India][RJ] Gajner Palace. Gajner is an incomparable jewel of the Thar. The Gajner Palace was founded by Maharaja Gaj Singh ji of Bikaner, and then completed by the great Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner on the banks of the lake.
1784: The India Act, 1784 established the principles of governance in India.
1784: The East India Company Act 2
1784 (Jan 15):
1784 (Aug 13): The East India Company Act 1784, also known as Pitt's India Act, was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain intended to address the shortcomings of the Regulating Act of 1773 by bringing the East India Company's rule in India under the control of the British Government.
1784: Industrial Revolution-1 was at its peak. Steam power for the mass.
1784:[Travel][India][RJ] Gajner Palace. Gajner is an incomparable jewel of the Thar. The Gajner Palace was founded by Maharaja Gaj Singh ji of Bikaner, and then completed by the great Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner on the banks of the lake.
1784:[Space][Research] John Michell proposed that gravity can be strong enough in the vicinity of massive compact objects that even light cannot escape. At that time, the Newtonian theory of gravitation and the so-called corpuscular theory of light were dominant. In these theories, if the escape velocity of the gravitational influence of a massive object exceeds the speed of light, then light originating inside or from it can escape temporarily but will return.
1784:[Maths] A French mathematician who introduced the Legendre polynomials in his 1784 paper "Recherches sur la figure des planètes". These polynomials arose as coefficients in the expansion of the Newtonian potential, specifically in the expansion of the gravitational potential due to a point mass or the Coulomb potential due to a point charge. The Legendre equation, a second-order linear differential equation, originated from Adrien-Marie Legendre's work on the shape of planets. In 1784, while studying the attraction of spheroids and ellipsoids, he introduced what became known as Legendre polynomials, which are solutions to this equation. These polynomials are crucial in solving Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates (∇²Φ = 0) , particularly in problems involving axial symmetry.
1785:[Education][US][Public] University of Georgia founded.
1785: Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace took the key forward step in using integrals of this form in order to transform a whole difference equation, rather than simply as a form for the solution, and found that the transformed equation was easier to solve than the original. The basic idea now known as the Z-transform was known to Laplace, and it was re-introduced in 1947 by W. Hurewicz
1785: Times (Newspaper)
1785: Times (Newspaper)
1785:[biz][mktg][India] 1785 Construction: An ancestor of the Joshi family, Shri Raghunath Krishna Joshi, formally established a prominent structure for the deity in the area. The Kalbadevi Temple in Mumbai is a historic shrine dedicated to an incarnation of Goddess Kali or Kalika. The temple gave its name to one of South Mumbai’s oldest and busiest commercial neighborhoods. The idol is considered swayambhu (self-manifested) and has deep roots tied to the region's shifting urban and colonial past. Colonial Relocation: During the British colonial period, authorities dismantled the old structure to widen roads and lay a tramline. Early roots: Folklore suggests the original idol remained hidden or placed in Mahim for nearly five centuries before (1280s) being rediscovered and brought to South Bombay.
1786 : The India Act, 1784 established the principles of governance in India. Lord Cornwallis(1786-93) splitted the bureaucracy into two parts :- political branch responsible for civil governance and commercial branch for commercial activities.
1786: development of Post Offices paced-up in India.
1786:[Culture][Kinky] slang for boobs - Cream Jugs or Apple Dumplings
1786:[Business] Chivas Regal is produced at the Strathisla Distillery in Speyside. Established in 1786, it's the oldest working distillery in the Scottish Highlands.
1787: James Madison's (The 4th US Prez.) Contribution to the Constitution
1787: Church Mission Society. The original proposal for the mission came from Charles Grant and George Uday of the East India Company and the Revd David Brown, of Calcutta, who sent a proposal in 1787 to William Wilberforce, then a young member of parliament, and Charles Simeon, a young clergyman at Cambridge University. The Baptist Missionary Society was formed in 1792 and the London Missionary Society was formed in 1795.1787 (Dec): Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey were the first states in USA to join the union on Dec 7, 12 and 18 resp.
1788:[History][Culture] Estimates of the number of people living in Australia at the time that colonisation began in 1788, who belonged to a range of diverse groups, vary from 300,000 to a million, and upper estimates place the total population as high as 1.25 million. A cumulative population of 1.6 billion people has been estimated to have lived in Australia over 65,000 years prior to British colonisation. The regions of heaviest Aboriginal population were the same temperate coastal regions that are currently the most heavily populated, the Murray River valley in particular. The population shrank from those present when colonisation began in New South Wales in 1788, to 50,000 in 1930. This drastic reduction in numbers has been attributed to outbreaks of smallpox and other diseases, but other sources have described the extent of frontier clashes and in some cases, deliberate killings of Aboriginal peoples.
1789: French Revolution, a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France that lasted from 1789 until 1799, and was partially carried forward by Napoleon during the later expansion of the French Empire. It started to overthrow monarchy and est Republic to amend socio-political culture.
After the French Revolution, lawmakers stopped interpretation of law by judges, and the legislature was the only body permitted to interpret the law; this prohibition was later overturned by the Napoleonic Code.
1789: Antoine-laurent de Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements grouped into gases, metals, non-metals and earths.
1789: Baron Augustin-Louis Cauchy FRS FRSE (French: [oɡystɛ̃ lwi koʃi]; 21 August 1789 – 23 May 1857) was a French mathematician and physicist who made pioneering contributions to analysis. He was one of the first to state and prove theorems of calculus rigorously, rejecting the heuristic principle of the generality of algebra of earlier authors. He almost singlehandedly founded complex analysis and the study of permutation groups in abstract algebra. A profound mathematician, Cauchy had a great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings range widely in mathematics and mathematical physics.
--------------------------------------------- The French Revolution started ---------------------------------------
1789:The French Revolution (1789–1799) French Revolution Key Context: Absolute monarchy under King Louis XVI, social inequality, and economic crisis in France Significance: The French Revolution was one of the most influential events in world history, challenging absolute monarchy and feudalism. It began with economic hardship, political corruption, and growing demands for social reform. The revolution led to the overthrow of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, the establishment of a republic, and ultimately widespread political and social upheaval across Europe. Key Events: Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789): A symbolic event marking the start of the revolution and the end of royal authority. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (August 1789): Declared the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Reign of Terror (1793–1794): A period of radical political purges under Robespierre, with thousands executed by guillotine. Why It’s Famous: The revolution’s ideals of liberty, equality, and democracy reshaped political systems in Europe and the Americas. It inspired movements for independence and reform globally, including the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804). Major Consequences: End of the monarchy and feudal privileges in France. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who would later establish the French Empire and spread revolutionary ideals across Europe. Modernization of political and legal systems, including the Napoleonic Code.
1789:The United States Department of State, or simply the State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Source: Wikipedia state.gov Jurisdiction: United States Headquarters: Harry S Truman Building, Northwest, Washington, D.C., U.S. 38°53′39″N 77°2′54″W / 38.89417°N 77.04833°W Founded: 27 July 1789 Officeholders: Ian McCary (Chargé d'affaires) · See more Annual budget: USD 58 billion (FY 2025) Employees: 80,214 (total); 14,399 Foreign Service employees; 12,831 Civil Service employees; 50,703 local employees Formed: July 27, 1789; 236 years ago
1789:[Politics][Corruption] Tammany Hall was a powerful New York City Democratic political machine that operated from the late 18th to the mid-20th century, dominating local politics from the 1850s to the 1930s. Founded in 1789 as a fraternal society, it became infamous for corruption, graft, and "boss" rule, most notably under William "Boss" Tweed, while also providing social services to immigrant populations in exchange for votes. It functioned as the executive committee of the Democratic Party in NYC, controlling municipal nominations and patronage. It was also known as the Columbian Order.
1789:[Education][US][Public] University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill founded.
1789: Mohammad Ibrahim Zauq born at Delhi.1789: French Revolution, a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France that lasted from 1789 until 1799, and was partially carried forward by Napoleon during the later expansion of the French Empire. It started to overthrow monarchy and est Republic to amend socio-political culture.
After the French Revolution, lawmakers stopped interpretation of law by judges, and the legislature was the only body permitted to interpret the law; this prohibition was later overturned by the Napoleonic Code.
1789: Antoine-laurent de Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements grouped into gases, metals, non-metals and earths.
1789: Baron Augustin-Louis Cauchy FRS FRSE (French: [oɡystɛ̃ lwi koʃi]; 21 August 1789 – 23 May 1857) was a French mathematician and physicist who made pioneering contributions to analysis. He was one of the first to state and prove theorems of calculus rigorously, rejecting the heuristic principle of the generality of algebra of earlier authors. He almost singlehandedly founded complex analysis and the study of permutation groups in abstract algebra. A profound mathematician, Cauchy had a great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings range widely in mathematics and mathematical physics.
1789 (Apr):[History][Culture][Medicine] A major outbreak of smallpox killed large numbers of Indigenous Australians between Hawkesbury River, Broken Bay, and Port Hacking. Based on information recorded in the journals of some members of the First Fleet, it has been surmised that the Aboriginal peoples of the Sydney region had never encountered the disease before and lacked immunity to it. Unable to understand or counter the sickness, they often fled, leaving the sick with some food and water to fend for themselves. As the clans fled, the epidemic spread further along the coast and into the hinterland. This had a disastrous effect on Aboriginal society; with many of the productive hunters and gatherers dead, those who survived the initial outbreak began to starve.
1789:[Tourism][EU] In 1789, a severe winter storm along the forbidding shore at Haisborough Sands in Norfolk sank 70 ships and took the lives of 600 men. Two years later a pair of lighthouses were built, and the one we see in our image is still fully operational today. In fact, Happisburgh Lighthouse is Great Britain's only independently owned working lighthouse. This 85-foot red-and-white striped landmark was slated for closure in 1988, but area residents were able to transfer control of the lighthouse to local authority, and so its light shines on. More love was shown to Happisburgh Lighthouse when the tower was revamped with donated paint in 2018.
1789:[Tourism][EU] In 1789, a severe winter storm along the forbidding shore at Haisborough Sands in Norfolk sank 70 ships and took the lives of 600 men. Two years later a pair of lighthouses were built, and the one we see in our image is still fully operational today. In fact, Happisburgh Lighthouse is Great Britain's only independently owned working lighthouse. This 85-foot red-and-white striped landmark was slated for closure in 1988, but area residents were able to transfer control of the lighthouse to local authority, and so its light shines on. More love was shown to Happisburgh Lighthouse when the tower was revamped with donated paint in 2018.
1790s:[Physics][UK] While studying medicine at Göttingen in the 1790s, Young wrote a thesis on the physical and mathematical properties of sound and in 1800, he presented a paper to the Royal Society (written in 1799) where he argued that light was also a wave motion. His idea was greeted with a certain amount of skepticism because it contradicted Newton's corpuscular theory. Nonetheless, he continued to develop his ideas. He believed that a wave model could much better explain many aspects of light propagation than the corpuscular model.
1790:[Physics] In 1790, following a French government decree, the Académie des sciences appointed a commission of scientists to investigate and propose a new, standardized, and decimal-based system of weights and measures, leading to the creation of the metric system. This commission decided the unit of length, the meter, would be one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator along the Paris meridian.
1790: Franklin died on April 17 (aged 84) at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.
1790: Admiral Lord Howe issued a new signal book for a numerary system using numeral flags to signal a number; the number indicated the message, not the mast from which the flags flew.
1790: Admiral Lord Howe issued a new signal book for a numerary system using numeral flags to signal a number; the number indicated the message, not the mast from which the flags flew.
1790: Homicide Rates in Plantation Counties in Georgia, 1790-1990
1790:[Space][Research][India] William Petrie (died: 1816), an officer of the East India Company set up private observatory in his residence located in Egmore, Chennai (formerly Madras), India. The main aim of the observatory, according to Petrie, was "to provide navigational assistance to the company ships and help determine the longitudes by observing the eclipses of Moon and satellites of Jupiter". In 1790, this private observatory was taken over by the East India Company, with Michael Topping (1747–96) as an astronomer. In 1792, the observatory was expanded and shifted to a complex in Nungambakkam area of Chennai. This was the first modern observatory outside Europe.
1790:[Space][Research] Spanish National Observatory, perhaps Spain's first space laboratory.
1790-1792:[History][India] Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792): Led to the Siege of Seringapatam (1792) and severe territorial losses for Tipu.
1791: In the United States, Philadelphia carpenters went on strike for the ten-hour day.
1791:[Book][Science] Benjamin Franklin's The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin; Poor Richard's Almanack (1732-1758); A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725); Experiments and Observations on Electricity (1754); The Way to Wealth (1758)
1791:[Book][Science] Benjamin Franklin's The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin; Poor Richard's Almanack (1732-1758); A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725); Experiments and Observations on Electricity (1754); The Way to Wealth (1758)
1791: Charles Babbage born, died in 1871. Created the ultimate analog computer. 26 December 1791: Born in London, England, to a wealthy banking family.1810: Entered Trinity College, Cambridge, later moving to Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he self-taught advanced mathematics.1812: Co-founded the Analytical Society to reform British mathematics.1814: Graduated from Peterhouse and married Georgiana Whitmore.
1791: Anne Lister (3 April 1791 – 22 September 1840) was an English diarist, famous for revelations for which she was dubbed "the first modern lesbian". (Brontë)
1791:[History][India][Military] Pindaris - They were highly effective against the enemies given their rapid and chaotic thrust into enemy territories, but also caused serious abuses against allies such as during the Pindari raid on Sringeri Sharada Peetham in 1791.
1791:[crime] The newly formed United States government passes the "Whiskey Tax" to pay off Revolutionary War debts.
1792 (Jan 1): First Map of India. James Rennel published a map of principal Indian roads and divisions, titiled 'A general view of the principal roads and divisions of Hindoostan'
1792, Claude Chappe (France) built the first visual telegraphy (or semaphore) system between Lille and Paris. This was followed by a line from Strasbourg to Paris, and eventually spanned all of France.
1792: In 1792, the madrasa was converted into an Oriental College, focusing on literature, science, and art.
1792: In 1792, the madrasa was converted into an Oriental College, focusing on literature, science, and art.
1792:[UK][Who] Sir Richard Arkwright was an English inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution. Born: 23 December 1732, Preston, United Kingdom Died: 3 August 1792 (age 59 years), Cromford, United Kingdom Grandchildren: Richard Arkwright, Mary Ann Hurt · See more Children: Richard Arkwright junior, Susanna Arkwright Parents: Thomas Arkwright, Ellen Hodgkinson Spouse: Margaret Biggins (m. 1761), Patience Holt (m. 1755) Nationality: British, English
1793: metre (m) was first defined as '1/10000000 of the meridian through Paris between the North Pole and the Equator'.
1793: kilogram (kg) was first defined as 'The grave was defined as being the weight [mass] of one cubic decimetre of pure water at its freezing point'.
1793: The East India Company Act 3rd or Charter Act of 1793.
1793: development of Post Offices slowed-down in India.
1793: kilogram (kg) was first defined as 'The grave was defined as being the weight [mass] of one cubic decimetre of pure water at its freezing point'.
1793: The East India Company Act 3rd or Charter Act of 1793.
1793: development of Post Offices slowed-down in India.
1793:[Travel][India][RJ] Built in 1793 AD by Raja Bakhtawar Singh, the City Palace is an amazing mélange of the Rajputana and Islamic styles of architecture. The highlight of this palace are graceful marble pavilions set on lotus flower bases in the central courtyard.
1793: Euronext Dublin is Ireland's main stock exchange, and has been in existence since 1793. The Euronext Dublin lists debt and fund securities and is used as a European gateway exchange for companies seeking to access investors in Europe and beyond.
1793:[crime] Colonial Era (1793 – 1947 CE): The Permanent Settlement of 1793 introduced by Lord Cornwallis transformed land into a rigid, commoditized asset by creating hereditary Zamindari systems. Tenant evictions, arbitrary rent hikes, and intense revenue extraction fractured rural landholdings into tiny, disputed parcels. This widespread record degradation and boundary insecurity catalyzed modern types of localized land grabbing and litigation. (land encroachment)
1794:[Education][US][Public] University of Tennessee, Knoxville founded.
1794:[Technology] Echolocation in bats was discovered by Lazzaro Spallanzani, when he demonstrated that bats hunted and navigated by inaudible sound, not vision. (Ultrasound)
1794, Abraham Edelcrantz, (Sweden) built a quite different system from Stockholm to Drottningholm. using pulleys rotating beams of wood.1794:[India][UK] Descriptions of Indian forehead-flap rhinoplasty by Sushruta's methods were published in the Gentleman's Magazine in London, introducing the technique to Europe.
1794:[crime] U.S. farmers violently resist the tax in the Whiskey Rebellion. President George Washington deploys troops to suppress it. The rebellion forces many illicit distillers further south into the mountains of Virginia, Kentucky, and the Carolinas, establishing the heartland of American moonshining.
1795:[India] The old name of Chhattisgarh was mainly Dakshina Kosala, which is mentioned in ancient texts like Ramayana and Mahabharata, and it was also known by names like Mahakantar and Dandakaranya, but the name 'Chhattisgarh' became popular during the Maratha period and was first officially used in a British document in 1795.
1795:[Fashion][Culture] Dandyism, although English in origin, dandyism soon found a resonance in post-revolutionary France, where it was adopted by the avant-garde youth subculture, the Incroyables. In Japan, dandyism has become a fashion subculture with historical roots dating back to the Edo period.
1795:[Fashion][Culture] Dandyism, although English in origin, dandyism soon found a resonance in post-revolutionary France, where it was adopted by the avant-garde youth subculture, the Incroyables. In Japan, dandyism has become a fashion subculture with historical roots dating back to the Edo period.
1795:[Business] Jim Beam is an American brand of bourbon whiskey produced primarily at James B. Beam Distilling Co. in Clermont, Kentucky by Suntory Global Spirits. It is one of the best-selling brands of bourbon in the world. Parent companies: Suntory, Suntory Global Spirits Introduced: 1795 "Old Jake Beam Sour Mash"; 1880, "Old Tub"; 1943, "Jim Beam" Manufacturer: Suntory Global Spirits; (d/b/a James B. Beam Distilling Co.) Proof (US): 80
1796:[Women] During this period, she formed an army and sought an alliance with Hyder Ali with the aim of launching a campaign against the East India Company in 1780. When Velu Nachiyar found the place where the Company stored some their ammunition, she arranged a suicide attack on the location, blowing it up. Nachiyar reinherited the kingdom of her husband and ruled it for ten more years. In 1790, the throne was inherited by her daughter Vellacci. She granted powers to her daughter with the Marudu brothers to help with the administration of the kingdom in 1780. Velu Nachiyar died a few years later, on 25 December 1796.
1796:[US] Tennessee was admitted to the Union on June 1, 1796, as the 16th state and the first created from federal territory.
1796:[crime] The modern roulette wheel makes its debut in the gaming houses of Paris, France. (gambling)
1797: It was the mathematical aspect of surveying that led Caspar Wessel to exploring the geometrical significance of complex numbers. His fundamental paper, 'Om directionens analytiske betegning', was presented in 1797 to the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. Since it was in Danish and published in a journal rarely read outside of Denmark, it went unnoticed for nearly a century. The same results were independently rediscovered by Argand in 1806 and Gauss in 1831.
1797: NYC Homicide rate 1797-2000, peaked around 1995s
1797:[mil] The 2 Para (SF) is an elite special operations battalion of the Indian Army, officially nicknamed the "Predators". Specializing in mountain warfare and counter-insurgency or counter-terrorism (CI/CT) operations, they are primarily tasked with direct action, special reconnaissance, and hostage rescue. Originally established in 1797 as part of the Maratha Light Infantry, the unit transitioned into the Parachute Regiment in 1977 and later became a dedicated Special Forces battalion. Known for operating in highly hazardous environments like Jammu and Kashmir, the "Predators" undertake gruelling airborne and special forces training to achieve their tactical objectives. Prospective commandos must pass rigorous initial physical and written tests overseen by the Indian Army to begin their rigorous probation.
1799: Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts fought between France under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte and a number of European nations between 1799 and 1815.
1799: Church Mission Society founded at Watlington Road, Oxford (UK) by Clapham Sect.
1799: JPMorgan Chase
1799: First Anglo-Mysore War halted.
1799: Captain Sir Home Popham published his first list of words and sentences which could be referenced by a number (or "code"); three subsequent editions added letter flags, with the 1801 edition numbering 2994 codes.
1799: While the word placebo had been used since 1772, this is the first real demonstration of the placebo effect. The first scientific demonstration of the placebo effect came in 1799 when a British physician, John Haygarth, set out to test one of the quack remedies on sale at that time: expensive metal rods named Perkins tractors that purported to draw disease from the body.
1799:[Travel][India][RJ] Hawa Mahal, literally the Palace of Winds, was built in 1799 by the poet king Sawai Pratap Singh as a summer retreat for him and his family. It also served as a place where the ladies of the royal household could observe everyday life without being seen themselves.
1799:[who][wisdom] A well known statement by Joseph de Maistre: Every nation gets the government it deserves. Mind you, he stated this during the French revolution (1789-1799), when France had been ruled by kings for centuries, and alternative forms of government were unthinkable.
1799:[silvics] Silviculture, the art and science of controlling forest establishment, growth, and composition, has evolved over 200 years (1825s) from basic, localized harvesting into a complex, sustainable science. Originating from European practices like coppicing in the 9th century, it has transitioned from maximizing timber yields towards ecosystem management and biodiversity. Early Roots (Pre-1800s): Early forest management, particularly in Europe, focused on coppice systems (cutting trees for re-sprouting) and later "coppice-with-standards" to manage hardwood forests.
1799:[History][India] Fifth Significant Battles in South Indian History: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799): The final conflict where the British killed Tipu Sultan and captured Srirangapatna. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War is generally regarded as the climax of Mysore's military, featuring the most intense, large-scale engagement at the capital.
1799:[History][India] Biggest battle in Mysore History - The biggest and most decisive battle in Mysore history was the Siege of Seringapatam in 1799, which marked the culmination of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. It was the largest force ever assembled by the East India Company, resulting in the death of Tipu Sultan, the fall of the Mysore capital, and the end of Mysore’s resistance to British expansion. Combatants: British East India Company (led by Lt. Gen. George Harris) vs. Kingdom of Mysore (led by Tipu Sultan). Outcome: The fort was breached, Tipu Sultan was killed on May 4, 1799, and the British restored the Wodeyar dynasty as a puppet state. At its peak, the company was the largest corporation in the world by various measures and had its own armed forces in the form of the company's three presidency armies, totalling about 260,000 soldiers, twice the size of the British Army at certain times.
---------------------------------------- The Age of Enligtenment halts --------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------ The French Revolution halted -------------------------------------------
19th century CE started on 1st Jan 1801 AD.
Until the 19th century, the typical work week was 10 – 12 hours, 6-7 days a week, depending on the occupation, season and length of the day. In most cases, people worked longer than 80 hours per week.
The passenger pigeon or wild pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) is an extinct species of pigeon that was endemic to North America. The 2017 study's "conservative" estimate of an "effective population size" of 13 million birds is still only about 1/300th of the bird's estimated historic population of approximately 3–5 billion before their "19th century decline and eventual extinction."
1800s:By 1800, however, the world population passed the 1 billion mark and has since continued to grow to its current 8 billion (our most recent estimate as of 2022). This growth is driven in large part by advances in public health, medicine, and nutrition that have lowered death rates, allowing more people to live far into their reproductive years. (Birth rates were set at 80 per 1,000 population annually through 1 C.E. and at 60 per 1,000 from 2 C.E. to 1750. Rates then declined to below the 20s by the modern period)
1800s:[edu] Pre-19th Century: Practical mechanics relied on apprenticeship, trade skills, and trial-and-error rather than formal university degrees. Mechanical engineering as an academic degree emerged during the 19th century, driven by the Industrial Revolution, the rise of steam power, and formal programs at institutions like MIT and the University of Minnesota.
1800s:[History] Do Americans call the 1800s the Victorian era? One answer is: they do and they don't. American history that happened along the north Atlantic coast is commonly referred to as taking place “in Victorian times”, but any history that happened west of the Rockies is usually discussed as “in the old west”.
1800s:[Gaming] the invention of coin-operated vending machines had come about. Game of chance vs Game of skills.
1800s:1800:[Mythology]The term “boogeyman” was coined in the 1800’s, originating from the middle English word “bogge”, which means hobgoblin. It can also be traced back to a “bugbear”, which is the combination of a goblin, bear, and scarecrow. Even with a rough origin of the Boogeyman, there is still discrepancy on how he looks. The Korean bogeyman is called Kotgahm, which is the word for persimmon. The legend is that a mother told her crying child that she would feed him to a tiger if he did not behave. A passing tiger, hearing the threat, waited outside the door for his meal. Instead, the mother gave the child a persimmon, a kotgahm, and the crying stopped. The tiger thought the kotgahm must be a terrifically fierce creature to be more frightening than a tiger. Today, the kotgahm is most often visualized as an old man with a mesh sack who carries naughty children away.
1800s:[History][Oz] For many years, plans of westward expansion from Sydney were thwarted by the Great Dividing Range, a large range of mountains which shadows the east coast from the Queensland-New South Wales border to the south coast. The part of the range near Sydney is called the Blue Mountains. After numerous attempts William Paterson led an expedition northward along the coast to the Hunter Region in 1801 and up the Paterson River (later named in his honour by Governor King) and in 1804 Paterson led an expedition to Port Dalrymple, in what is now Tasmania, exploring the Tamar River and going up the North Esk River farther than any European had previously gone.
1800s:[Physics] Young's work on wave theory.
1800:The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of "team-work" in the context of a team of draught animals as early as 1800.
1800: the term 'Judiciary' started to grow.
1800 (Mar 20): Alessandro Volta describes his new invention, the voltaic pile, the first chemical battery, in a letter to the Royal Society of London.. Alessandro Volta (Italy) invented a galvanic battery inspiring Ørsted to think about the nature of electricity and to conduct his first electrical experiments.1800: Lord Wellesley setup the Fort William College in Calcutta to induct new entrants into CCS (Covenanted Civil Services) and to teach the British rookies understand the Oriental culture, tradition, law and administration to better coordinate in the “governance”.
1800 (Jan 1): Dutch East India Company dissolves.
1800s-1825s:[Culture] A more economically privileged, wealthy, or even aristocratic bohemian circle is sometimes referred to as haute bohème (literally "high Bohemia"). The term Bohemianism emerged in France in the early 19th century when artists and creators began to concentrate in the lower-rent, lower class, Romani neighborhoods (Gypsey).
1800s: This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the key accomplishments of 19th-century mathematical physics.
1800s:[Food] Dragon fruit is indigenous to Mexico and Central America but was introduced to Southeast Asia, first in Vietnam, by the French in the late 19th century.
1800s:[Music] Khusrau Khan, an 18th-century figure of the Mughal Empire has been identified by modern scholarship as the inventor of the sitar. According to most historians, he developed the sitar from the setar, an Iranian instrument of Abbasid or Safavid origin.
1800s: One very popular miraculous story about Tirupathi goes back to 19th Century India. It is said that the ruler of Tirumala region of that time had once imposed the death sentence on twelve criminals for severe crimes. 12 people were hung to death, and their dead bodies were left hanging on the walls of the Tirupathi temple. Many people claim that the deity had made an appearance at that time and the temple was later closed down 12 years.
1800s:[History][India][Military] By the early 1800s, armed Pindari militia groups sought wealth for their leaders and themselves. There were an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 Pindari militia during the "Gardi-ka-wakt" ("period of unrest") in north-central India around 1800–1815 CE, who plundered villages, captured people as slaves for sale, and challenged the authority of local Muslim sultanates, Hindu kingdoms, and the British colonies.
1800s:[crime] The Black Hand: In the late 1800s and early 1900s, groups like the Black Hand (extortion) in Italian-American neighborhoods sent threatening letters demanding cash under threat of death or property damage. Protection Rackets: Traditional mafia groups in Sicily and the US perfected the "pizzo," forcing local shop owners to pay regular protection money or face violence and ruined businesses.
1800s:[env] Until the early 1800s, billions of passenger pigeons darkened the skies of the United States in spectacular migratory flocks. Easy to trap or shoot, passenger pigeons became a popular, cheap food.
1800s: Traditional Rackets: In the 19th and 20th centuries, extortion evolved into systemic organized crime. Groups like the Sicilian Mafia institutionalized the pizzo (protection money), while urban syndicates worldwide used physical intimidation and "protection" schemes. Underworld Diversification: Criminal enterprises expanded from basic neighborhood shakedowns into labor racketeering, control of local industries, and political coercion. (extortion)
1800s:[tour][de] From the 19th century onwards, the salt trade increasingly took place through Bavarian territory. The brine pipeline was relocated to Bad Reichenhall via the current Soleleitungsweg and the Schwarzbachwacht. Slowly, tourism began to develop in Ramsau: The Wimbachklamm (Wimbach Gorge) was made accessible to the public. Teacher Westermayer founded the Ramsau Enhancement Association, the present-day Tourism Association. The path through the Zauberwald (‘Enchanted Forest’) was created, and artists discovered the natural beauty of lake Hintersee. The painter's chronicle of Hintersee was established. Mountaineers conquered numerous peaks around the valley, and the first mountain huts were built. While previously only noble hunting parties roamed the mountains, those citizens who could afford it, were now able to venture into the mountains with a mountain guide.
1800s:[tour][greece] Town Layout: Divided into the Upper Town (the plateau/acropolis) and the Lower Town nestled against the sea slope.Decline and Revival: The population abandoned the medieval site by the 19th century, but restoration efforts in the 1970s turned it into a living historical landmark.
------------------------------- Advent of Computers and Programming ----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------- 25 years of Independent USA --------------------------------------------
1801:[Education][US][Public] University of South Carolina founded.
1801:[Research][Physics] The French scientist Nicolas Gautherot observed that wires that had been used for electrolysis experiments would themselves provide a small amount of "secondary" current after the main battery had been disconnected. (Battery)
1801:[Physics][UK][Quantum] Young presented a famous paper to the Royal Society entitled "On the Theory of Light and Colours" which describes various interference phenomena. In 1803, he described his famous interference experiment. Unlike the modern double-slit experiment, Young's experiment reflects sunlight (using a steering mirror) through a small hole, and splits the thin beam in half using a paper card. He also mentions the possibility of passing light through two slits in his description of the experiment
1801: Hans Christian Ørsted (Denmark) received a travel scholarship and public grant which enabled him to spend three years travelling across Europe.In Germany he met Johann Wilhelm Ritter (German), a physicist who believed there was a connection between electricity and magnetism. This made sense to Ørsted since he believed in Kantian ideas about the unity of nature and that deep relationships existed between natural phenomena.
1801: Nawab Shuja ud-Daula of Awadh (r.1753-1775) subsequently ceeded part of his territory including Moradabad to the Britsh in 1801.
1801:[Computer] Joseph Marie Jacquard uses punch cards to instruct a loom to weave "hello, world" into a tapestry. Redditers of the time are not impressed due to the lack of tail call recursion, concurrency, or proper capitalization. Stamping Jacquard cards, 1801 through 1890. Jacquard cards were said to be stamped or cut (not punched). The first Jacquard cards were stamped by hand, sometimes using a guide plate. An improvement was to place the card between two perforated metal plates (hinged together), insert punches according to the desired pattern, then pass the assembly through a press to cut the card. These essentially manual processes were replaced by machines; piano machines (the name taken from the keys), operated by keyboards and comparable in function to unit record keypunches, becoming the most common.
1801:[Military][Education][UK] The Royal Military College (RMC), founded in 1801 and established in 1802 at Great Marlow and High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, England, but moved in October 1812 to Sandhurst, Berkshire, was a British Army military academy for training infantry and cavalry officers of the British and Indian Armies. (IMA, Dehradun)
1801:[SpaceX] Ceres is a dwarf planet in the main asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It was the first known asteroid, discovered on 1 January 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo Astronomical Observatory in Sicily, and announced as a new planet. Wikipedia Radius: 473 km Discoverer: Giuseppe Piazzi Orbital period: 1,682 days Gravity: 0.27 m/s² Discovered: 1 January 1801 Density: 2.08 g/cm³.
1801:[History][India] First Sikh conflict : Katoch–Sikh War (1801) between Sikh Empire and Kangra State
1802: World population attained the 1 billion or 100 crore milestone.
1802 (Jan 1):[Polity] The precise origin of the term "Separation of church and state" dates to Jefferson and his correspondence with religious denominations, however, the entanglement of religion with government and the state dates back to antiquity when state and religion were often closely associated with one another. Ref: Jefferson, Thomas (1 January 1802). "Jefferson's Letter to the Danbury Baptists". U.S. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 4 October 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2006.
1802 (Apr 10): Great Trigonometrical Survey of India begins with the measurement of a baseline near Madras.
1802 (Sep 3): William Wordsworth composes the poem "Westminster Bridge" in London.
1802: Marie Tussaud first exhibits her wax sculptures in London, having been commissioned during the Reign of Terror in France to make death masks of the victims.
1802 (Sep 3): William Wordsworth composes the poem "Westminster Bridge" in London.
1802: Marie Tussaud first exhibits her wax sculptures in London, having been commissioned during the Reign of Terror in France to make death masks of the victims.
1802:[SpaceX] 2 Pallas is the second-largest asteroid in the asteroid belt, discovered by Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers on March 28, 1802, and named after the Greek goddess Pallas Athena. It is a B-type asteroid with a heavily cratered surface, resembling a golf ball. Pallas is a protoplanet remnant and is notable for its high orbital inclination and eccentricity, which contribute to a violent collisional history.
1802:[History][India] Internal rivalries among the Maratha chiefs led Peshwa Baji Rao II to sign the Treaty of Bassein (1802) with the British for protection after his defeat by Yashwantrao Holkar. Scindia and Bhonsle rejected this treaty as a loss of sovereignty, directly triggering the conflict.
1802:[History][India] The Battle of Pune took place on 25 October 1802 near Pune between the states of the Maratha Confederacy. The forces of the Scindia and the Peshwa Bajirao II were attacked by the Holkars. While the British East India Company was not involved in the battle, its outcome and aftermath led to the Second Anglo-Maratha War.
1802:[edu] The United States established the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, which served as the primary early training ground for American engineers. (Civil engg)
-------------------- The Napoleonic Wars led by Napoleon I against the United Kingdom ------------------
1803:[India] British rule in Delhi began in 1803 when the British East India Company defeated the Marathas. The Mughal emperor became a figurehead. After the 1857 rebellion, direct Crown rule started. In 1911, the British moved their capital from Calcutta to New Delhi, designed by Edwin Lutyens.
1803:[mktg][FnB] Sadar Bazar - Colonial Era: The formal layout and identity as a Sadar (central) market solidified under British rule, acting as a primary hub for goods moving through the walled city near Khari Baoli and Lahori Gate.
1803: only after Young's well known slit experiment in 1803 were most scientists persuaded to believe Huygens' theory.1803: Battle of Patparganj. Patparganj was the location of the Battle of Delhi, which took place on September 11, 1803 during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, between British troops under General Lake, and Marathas of Scindia's army under General Louis Bourquin
1803:[India][Who][Place] Bhiwani (Haryana) was annexed by the British raj from the Maratha Empire. In 1817, William Frazer built a mandi (grain and goods market) here, resulting in the emergence of town as the regional hub of trade.
1803:[Military] Several cities in the Indian subcontinent, including Ahmedabad, Ambala, Bellary, Belgaum, Bangalore, Danapur, Jabalpur, Kanpur, Bathinda, Delhi, Nilgiris, Chennai, Mumbai, Pune, Meerut, Ramgarh, Secunderabad, and Trichy, contained large cantonments of the former British Indian Army, with Meerut and Ramgarh being two of the most important cantonments in Northern India, second only to the headquarters at Rawalpindi (now in Pakistan). Meerut was established in 1803, and for 150 years was the largest cantonment in the region.
1803:[History][India] Under leaders like Arthur Wellesley and Gerard Lake, the British gained crucial victories in 1803, including at Assaye and Argaon in the Deccan, and Delhi and Laswari in the north.
1803:[History][India] The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805) was the second of three major conflicts between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire, resulting in a decisive British victory that shattered Maratha power.
1803 (Sep 4):[History][India] It was fought between the British East India Company, led by Lord Gerard Lake, and the Marathas, who were in control of Aligarh Fort.
1803 (Sep 11):[History][India] The Battle of Delhi or Battle of Patparganj took place on 11 September 1803 during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, between British East India Company troops of the Bombay Army under General Lake, and the Marathas of Scindia's army under General Louis Bourquin and Sardar Wable.
1803 (Sep 23):[History][India] The Battle of Assaye was a battle of the Second Anglo-Maratha War fought between the Maratha Empire and the East India Company. It occurred on 23 September 1803 near Assaye in western India.
1803 (Nov 1):[History][India] The Battle of Laswari took place on 1 November 1803 near Laswari village, Alwar. It was part of the Second Anglo-Maratha War.
1803 (Nov 29):[History][India] The Battle of Argaon took place on 29 November 1803, between the British under the command of Major-General Arthur Wellesley and the forces of the Bhonsles of Berar and the Scindias of Gwalior.
1803 (Dec 15):[History][India] The Capture of Gawilghur fort in western India by British East India Company forces under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley on 15 December 1803 during the Second Anglo-Maratha War was the culminating act in the defeat of the forces of Raghoji II Bhonsle, Rajah of Berar.
1803:[tour][de] The wealth from salt also had political implications: The Augustinian Monastery of Berchtesgaden rose to become an Imperial Principality. In the person of the Prince-Provost, spiritual and secular power were united. Berchtesgaden remained an independent ecclesiastical state for over 700 years until the secularization in 1803. From 1803 to 1810, Berchtesgaden and Ramsau experienced a period of great political upheaval. The valley initially belonged to the Electorate of Salzburg, then to the Austrian Empire. Finally, under French rule, Berchtesgaden was annexed to the Kingdom of Bavaria through the Paris Treaty in 1810. Since 1818, Ramsau has been an independent political municipality.
1804:[Education][US][Public] Ohio University founded.
1804: Francisco Salva Campillo (N. Spain), a Catalan polymath and scientist designed an electrochemical telegraph.1804:[Space] 61 Cygni first attracted the attention of astronomers when its large proper motion was first demonstrated by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1804.
1804: Martello towers were built in Ireland in 1804, due to a fear of invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. At that time, Napoleon had conquered Spain, Italy, The meaning of MARTELLO TOWER is a circular masonry fort or blockhouse.
1804: Martello towers were built in Ireland in 1804, due to a fear of invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. At that time, Napoleon had conquered Spain, Italy, The meaning of MARTELLO TOWER is a circular masonry fort or blockhouse.
1804:[SpaceX] Juno is a large asteroid in the asteroid belt. Juno was the third asteroid discovered, in 1804, by German astronomer Karl Harding. It is tied with three other asteroids as the thirteenth largest asteroid, and it is one of the two largest stony asteroids, along with 15 Eunomia. Wikipedia Orbital period: 1,594 days Asteroid group: Asteroid belt Discoverer: Karl Ludwig Harding Radius: 135.7 km Discovered: 1 September 1804 Gravity: 0.12 m/s² Spectral type: S-type asteroid
1805: The Battle of Trafalgar was fought at Cape Trafalgar, Spain. Flag (the first generation of signaling in the Royal Navy) signals most famously used to spread Nelson’s rallying-cry before the Battle of Trafalgar.
It was a naval engagement fought by the Royal Navy against the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies, during the War of the Third Coalition of the Napoleonic Wars.
1805:[History][India] The siege of Bharatpur took place between 2 January and 22 February 1805 in the Indian Princely state of Bharatpur, during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Forces of the British East India Company, led by General Gerard Lake, were repulsed four times in their attempts to storm the fortress.
1805:[History][India] The Holkars signed the Treaty of Rajghat in 1805 according to which they gave up Tonk, Bundi and Rampura to the British. As a result of the war, large parts of central India came under British control.
1806: Argand moved from Geneva to Paris with his family and, when managing a bookshop there, privately published his 'Essai sur une manière de représenter les quantités imaginaires dans les constructions géométriques' (Essay on a method of representing imaginary quantities).
1806:[Mntngg][Extreme] 35 year long Great Trigonometric Survey of India started. After a military education, Sir George Everest (4 July 1790, Crickhowell, Wales, or Greenwich, England - 1 December 1866 (aged 76) London, England) joined the East India Company and arrived in India at the age of 16. He was eventually made an assistant to William Lambton on the Great Trigonometric Survey, and replaced Lambton as superintendent of the survey in 1823. Everest was largely responsible for surveying the meridian arc from the southernmost point of India north to Nepal, a distance of about 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi), a task that took from 1806 to 1841 to complete (35 years). He was made Surveyor General of India in 1830, retiring in 1843 and returning to England. He died 23 years later aged 76 in London.
1806:The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire occurred on 6 August 1806, when the last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, abdicated his title and released all Imperial states and officials from their oaths and obligations to the empire.
1806:The War of the Fourth Coalition (1806-1807) pitted Napoleon's French Empire against a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden, and Great Britain. It was fueled by Prussia's fear of French power after Napoleon's victory over Austria and the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine. The conflict concluded with French victories and the Treaties of Tilsit. Following Prussia's defeat, the war continued in Poland and East Prussia against Russia. The campaigns of Eylau (February 1807) and Friedland (June 1807) saw intense fighting, with Napoleon ultimately gaining the upper hand. Russia, while initially part of the coalition, eventually allied with France, further highlighting Napoleon's influence.
1806: In 1806, Napoleon decisively conquered Prussia following the swift and decisive Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. This victory led to the occupation of Prussia by French forces and the imposition of significant war reparations. The conquest was a key event in the War of the Fourth Coalition, demonstrating Napoleon's military dominance in Europe.
1806 (Oct 9):[War] Prussia's declaration of war on France on October 9, 1806, was met with swift French counterattacks. The Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on October 14, 1806, resulted in a decisive Prussian defeat and the fall of Berlin.
1806 (Oct 14):[War] Napoleon's forces engaged and defeated the Prussian army at both Jena and Auerstedt on October 14, 1806. The Prussian army was shattered, and its remnants were pursued by French troops. French forces occupied Prussia, including Berlin, and advanced further into Polish and Russian territories. Napoleon imposed substantial war reparations on Prussia, significantly weakening the state. The Prussian defeat contributed to the broader political landscape, including the formal dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. The Prussian campaign was part of the larger War of the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon.
1807:[SpaceX] Vesta is one of the largest objects in the asteroid belt, with a mean diameter of 525 kilometres. It was discovered by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers on 29 March 1807 and is named after Vesta, the virgin goddess of home and hearth from Roman mythology. Discoverer: Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers Asteroid family: Vesta family Orbital period: 1,325 days Radius: 262.7 km Mass: 2.589 × 10^20 kg Discovered: 29 March 1807 Gravity: 0.22 m/s²
1808:[Physics][UK] John Dalton produced some of the first experimental evidence of atomic elements and compounds. His evidence was correct, but his theory was mostly incorrect. Nevertheless, Dalton’s work led to later serious investigations into atomic structure.
1809: Laplace recognised that Joseph Fourier's method of Fourier series for solving the diffusion equation could only apply to a limited region of space because those solutions were periodic.Laplace applied his transform to find solutions that diffused indefinitely in space.
1809: Samuel Thomas von Sömmering (Germany), a physician, anatomist and inventor enhanced the Campillo's design of electrochemical telegraph.
1809: Henry Louis Vivian Derozio [1809-1831] was an Indian poet and assistant headmaster of Hindu College, Kolkata, a radical thinker and one of the first Indian educators to disseminate Western learning and science among the young men of Bengal.
1809:[Culture] In the English and later British colonies of North America, and later in the United States, British and Dutch versions of the gift-giver merged further. For example, in Washington Irving's History of New York (1809), Sinterklaas was Anglicized into "Santa Claus" (a name first used in the U.S. press in 1773) but lost his bishop's apparel, and was at first pictured as a thick-bellied Dutch sailor with a pipe in a green winter coat.
1810: [US] Homicide Rate in England and Wales, 1810-1914
1810:[Book] The Scottish Chiefs by Jane Porter.
1810:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell (née Stevenson; 29 September 1810 – 12 November 1865), often referred to as Mrs Gaskell, was an English novelist, biographer and short story writer. Her novels offer a detailed portrait of the lives of many strata of Victorian society, including the very poor. Her first novel, Mary Barton, was published in 1848. Gaskell's The Life of Charlotte Brontë, published in 1857, was the first biography of Charlotte Brontë. In this biography, she wrote only of the moral, sophisticated things in Brontë's life; the rest she omitted, deciding certain, more salacious aspects were better kept hidden. Among Gaskell's best known novels are Cranford (1851–1853), North and South (1854–55), and Wives and Daughters (1865), all of which were adapted for television by the BBC. Friend of Brontë.
1811:[Book] Sense and Sensibility is a novel by Jane Austen. It was published anonymously; By A Lady appears on the title page where the author's name might have been. It tells the story of the Dashwood sisters, Elinor (age 19) and Marianne (age 16½) as they come of age. They have an older half-brother, John, and a younger sister, Margaret (age 13).
1812: Phosgene (COCl2) was synthesized by the Cornish chemist John Davy (1790–1868) in 1812 by exposing a mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine to sunlight. He named it "phosgene" in reference of the use of light to promote the reaction; from Greek, phos (light) and gene (born).[13] It gradually became important in the chemical industry as the 19th century progressed, particularly in dye manufacturing.
1812: Phosgene (COCl2) was synthesized by the Cornish chemist John Davy (1790–1868) in 1812 by exposing a mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine to sunlight. He named it "phosgene" in reference of the use of light to promote the reaction; from Greek, phos (light) and gene (born).[13] It gradually became important in the chemical industry as the 19th century progressed, particularly in dye manufacturing.
1812:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Charles John Huffam Dickens (/ˈdɪkɪnz/; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English novelist and social critic who created some of the world's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era.
1812: Smuggler's Notch got its name because smugglers used the rugged path through the mountains to move supplies to and from Canada during the War of 1812. The boulders provided a good place to hide. A narrow road replaced the path and allows visitors to drive to the top in the warmer months.
1812:Napolean Bonaparte was at his greatest territorial expansion.
1812:[research][engg][geo] The Mohs scale of mineral hardness was introduced in 1812 by the German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. Comparing mineral hardness by observing scratch resistance is an ancient practice that predates Friedrich Mohs by millennia.
1813:[Book] Pride and Prejudice is an 1813 novel of manners written by Jane Austen. The novel follows the character development of Elizabeth Bennet, the dynamic protagonist of the book who learns about the repercussions of hasty judgments and comes to appreciate the difference between superficial goodness and actual goodness.
1813:[India] The Charter Act of 1813 was the first concrete step towards modern education in India. This act set aside an annual sum of Rs.1 lakh to be used in educating the ‘subjects’. Before this, institutes of higher learning (aka learning centres) taught Indian subjects in languages like Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. Persian was the court language too.
1813: The East India Company Act 4 or Charter Act of 1813
1813: Maharani Gouri Lakshmi Bai(1810-15) of the Travancore Royal family granted 16 acres of land, 500 rupees in cash, and timber from public forests for the construction of college buildings on the banks of the Meenachil River. The construction was also supported financially by the proceeds from a deposit made by Col. Colin Macaulay, the first Resident of Travancore, for the benefit of Syrian Christians in Travancore.
1813: Argand's Essay on a method of representing imaginary quantities was republished in the French journal Annales de Mathématiques. The Essay discussed a method of graphing complex numbers via analytical geometry. It proposed the interpretation of the value i as a rotation of 90 degrees in the Argand plane. In this essay he was also the first to propose the idea of modulus to indicate the magnitude of vectors and complex numbers, as well as the notation for vectors {\displaystyle {\overrightarrow {ab}}} \overrightarrow {ab}. The topic of complex numbers was also being studied by other mathematicians, notably Carl Friedrich Gauss and Caspar Wessel. Wessel's 1799 paper on a similar graphing technique did not attract attention.
1814: Lord Moira's camp at Moradabad painting by artist Sita Ram (flourished c.1810-22).
1813: Argand's Essay on a method of representing imaginary quantities was republished in the French journal Annales de Mathématiques. The Essay discussed a method of graphing complex numbers via analytical geometry. It proposed the interpretation of the value i as a rotation of 90 degrees in the Argand plane. In this essay he was also the first to propose the idea of modulus to indicate the magnitude of vectors and complex numbers, as well as the notation for vectors {\displaystyle {\overrightarrow {ab}}} \overrightarrow {ab}. The topic of complex numbers was also being studied by other mathematicians, notably Carl Friedrich Gauss and Caspar Wessel. Wessel's 1799 paper on a similar graphing technique did not attract attention.
1813 (Jul 25):[History][France][Spain] The Battle of the Pyrenees was a large-scale offensive launched on 25 July 1813 by Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult from the Pyrénées region on Emperor Napoleon's order, in the hope of relieving French garrisons under siege at Pamplona and San Sebastián.
1813 (Jul 25):[History][France][Spain] The Battle of Roncesvalles took place at the high Roncevaux Pass between French and Anglo-Portuguese forces during the Peninsular War. The French emerged victorious by assaulting this mountain pass.
1813 (Jul 25):[History][France][Spain] The Battle of Maya saw an Imperial French corps led by Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon attack the British 2nd Division under William Stewart at the Maya Pass in the western Pyrenees.
1813 (Jul 28):[History][France][Spain] The Battle of Sorauren was part of a series of engagements in late July 1813 called the Battle of the Pyrenees in which a combined British, Portuguese, and Spanish force under Sir Arthur Wellesley held off Marshal Soult's French forces attempting to relieve Pamplona.
1813 (Oct 7):[History] In the Battle of the Bidasoa on 7 October 1813 the Allied army of Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington wrested a foothold on French soil from Nicolas Soult's French army. The Allied troops overran the French lines behind the Bidassoa River on the coast and along the Pyrenees crest between the Bidasoa and La Rhune.
1813 (Nov 10):[History] The Battle of Nivelle (10 November 1813) took place in front of the river Nivelle near the end of the Peninsular War (1808–1814). After the Allied siege of San Sebastian, Wellington's 80,000 British, Portuguese and Spanish troops (20,000 of the Spaniards were untried in battle) were in hot pursuit of Marshal Soult who had 60,000 men to place in a 20-mile perimeter, (32.1 km) which presented strong defensive positions. The French troops were overextended and could not have reserves behind them.[2] After the Light Division, the main British army was ordered to attack and the 3rd Division split Soult's army in two. By two o'clock, Soult was in retreat and the British in a strong offensive position. Soult had lost another battle on French soil and had lost 4,500 men to Wellington's 5,500.
1813 (Dec 9-13):[History][France][Spain] The Battles of the Nive were fought towards the end of the Peninsular War. Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish army defeated Marshal Nicolas Soult's French army on French soil in a series of battles near the city of Bayonne.
1814: Nusserwanji Tata born. He became first businessman in a family of Parsi Zoroastrian priests. He broke the tradition to become the first member of the family to try his hand at business. He started an export trading firm in Mumbai.
1814: Argand is also renowned for delivering a proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra in his 1814 work Réflexions sur la nouvelle théorie d'analyse (Reflections on the new theory of analysis). It was the first complete and rigorous proof of the theorem, and was also the first proof to generalize the fundamental theorem of algebra to include polynomials with complex coefficients.
1814: Argand is also renowned for delivering a proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra in his 1814 work Réflexions sur la nouvelle théorie d'analyse (Reflections on the new theory of analysis). It was the first complete and rigorous proof of the theorem, and was also the first proof to generalize the fundamental theorem of algebra to include polynomials with complex coefficients.
1814:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë's first elder sister Maria was born, died 11YO in 1825
1814 (Feb 27):[History][France][Spain] The Battle of Orthez was fought in the southwest of France near the end of the Peninsular War. The Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese army under Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington, attacked an Imperial French army led by Marshal Nicolas Soult in southern France.
1814:[India][EU] Surgeon Joseph Carpue successfully performed the first major European rhinoplasty using Sushruta’s traditional Indian skin-flap method.
----------------------------------- The Napoleonic Wars led by Napoleon I halted ------------------------------
1815: [GeoPolitics][Military][Economics] After the Napoleonic Wars, the British pound is formally recognized as the global standard [[07:36](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYJri1eNRyc&t=456)].
1815:[India][GeoPolitics] Prior to 1815, the area now known as Jammu and Kashmir comprised 22 small independent states (16 Hindu and six Muslim) carved out of territories controlled by the Amir (King) of Afghanistan, combined with those of local small rulers. These were collectively referred to as the "Punjab Hill States". These small states, ruled by Rajput kings, were variously independent vassals of the Mughal Empire since the time of Emperor Akbar or sometimes controlled from Kangra state in the Himachal area. Following the decline of the Mughals, turbulence in Kangra and invasions of Gorkhas, the hill states fell successively under the control of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh.
1815:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë's second elder sister Elizabeth was born, died 11YO in 1825
1815: First National Geological Map: Smith created the world's first detailed, large-scale geological map of an entire nation. This image displays William Smith's "Sketch of the Succession of Strata and their Relative Altitudes," an historic 1815 geological cross-section of England and Wales featured on his pioneering nationwide geological map. The Principle of Faunal Succession: He discovered that different rock layers (strata) contain distinct, unique fossil assemblages. This allowed geologists to identify and correlate strata across massive geographical distances, establishing the framework for the modern Geological Time Scale. The Law of Superposition: His cross-section visually demonstrated the dip of rock units from the oldest granites and slates in Wales (left) down beneath progressively younger sedimentary layers like the Coal Measures, Chalk, and Brickearth toward London (right).
1815:[crime] Mounted horse patrols and growing banking networks cause highway robbery to decline since 1815, ending with the last reported case in 1831. ENd of age of highwaymen and dacoits.
1816:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë was born
1816 (Apr 21):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Charlotte Brontë was born in Market Street, Thornton, west of Bradford in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the third of the six children of Maria (née Branwell) and Patrick Brontë (formerly surnamed Brunty), an Irish Anglican clergyman.
1816: Morse code can be transmitted and received with very simple electrical equipment, such as the electrical telegraph invented in 1816. Morse code represents each letter of the alphabet as a series of "dots and dashes" (short and long bursts of electronically-generated noise).1816:[Technology]Frenchman Joseph Nicéphore Niépce invented the first photographic camera.
1816:[Military][India] Danapur Cantonment, established in 1816, is the second oldest cantonment in India.
1817:[Education][US][Public] University of Michigan founded.
1817: the first general system of signalling for merchant vessels was Captain Frederick Marryat's A Code of Signals for the Merchant Service published.1817: The College Cotym (today's C.M.S College, Kottayam) established when Colonel John Munroe assumed charge as the Dewan of Travancore.
1817 (Mar 8): The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), an American stock exchange, founded at 11 Wall Street, Lower Manhattan, New York City, New York.
1817:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Ellen Nussey (20 April 1817 – 26 November 1897) was born in Birstall Smithies in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. She was a lifelong friend, correspondent and potential lover[1] of writer Charlotte Brontë and, through more than 500 letters received from her, was a major influence for Elizabeth Gaskell's 1857 biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë.
1817:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Mary Taylor (1817 – 1 March 1893) an early advocate for women's rights, was born in Gomersal, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England
1817:[Writing][Art][Who] Alexander Pushkin wrote and published numerous poems across his lifetime, with notable pieces like "Ode to Liberty" (1817), "I Loved You" (1829), "To the Slanderers of Russia" (1831), and the verse novel "Eugene Onegin" (published in full in 1833). He also wrote many lyrics and other pieces, including the "little tragedies" and short prose tales.
1817:[Military][India] Khadki was the site of the Battle of Khadki, fought between the British East India Company and the Marathas in 1817 in which Baji Rao II, the Peshwa ruler was defeated. Soon after the war, the British set up a cantonment here. It then became the base of the Royal Regiment of Artillery's 79 (Khadki) Commando Battery. World War I Field Marshal William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood was born in Khadki. Referred to previously as Kirkee during the British Raj, its borders are flanked by two other large army establishments—the College of Military Engineering at Dapodi and the Bombay Engineering Group.
1817:[Maths] The Bessel equation, also known as Bessel's differential equation, originated from the study of planetary motion and specifically, Kepler's equation, around 1817. It was systematically investigated by the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel. However, the concept of these functions appeared earlier in the work of mathematicians like Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler, who studied them in the context of vibrating chains and membranes. The Khadki (Kirkee) Cantonment is housed here. It is known to be as one of the richest cantonments in the country. When considered along with Pune Cantonment, it is the largest Cantonment in the world. These two areas are the green zones of Pune and contribute to keeping pollution levels down.
1817:[History][India][Military] Francis Rawdon-Hastings, the Governor-General of British India, led an 120,000 strong force in early 19th-century against the Pindaris during the Third Anglo-Maratha War; the campaign became known as the Pindari War.
1817:[History][India] The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1819) was the final, decisive conflict between the British East India Company and the Maratha Confederacy, resulting in a total British victory and the end of the Maratha Empire. Led by Governor-General Lord Hastings, the British defeated the Peshwa, Scindia, Holkar, and Bhonsle, eliminating the Peshwaship and establishing British supremacy over most of India. Causes: Lord Hastings' goal to assert British paramountcy, combined with, the suppression of the Pindaris—who were formerly attached to Maratha armies—and resentment over the restrictive Treaty of Bassein (1802). Key Battles & Leaders: The Peshwa Baji Rao II attacked the British Residency at Poona. Major battles included Khadki, Sitabuldi (Bhonsle), and Mahidpur (Holkar), where British commanders like Thomas Hislop and John Malcolm defeated the Maratha forces. Resulting Treaties: The Treaty of Poona (June 1817) with the Peshwa, Treaty of Gwalior (Nov 1817) with Scindia, and Treaty of Mandasaur (Jan 1818) with Holkar forced the Maratha chiefs to submit to British suzerainty. Outcome: The Peshwa was deposed, pensioned off, and sent to Bithur (near Kanpur). The Maratha Confederacy was abolished, and the Peshwa's territories were annexed into the Bombay Presidency. A small portion was made the principality of Satara for a descendant of Shivaji.
1817:[History][India] Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818): Led to the final collapse of the Maratha Confederacy.
1818: Mumbai was made the capital of Maharashtra.
1818: The Holkars were defeated by the British during the Third Anglo-Maratha War, in the Battle of Mahidpur by virtue of which the capital of Malwa was again moved from Maheshwar to Indore.
1818: John Malcolm (a British admin; EIC admin; ) shifted the commercial centre of Malwa from Ujjain to Indore.
1818: An avid and methodical experimenter, Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848), played a part in the creation of the first periodic table.
1818 (May 5): Karl Marx was born stateless, he later rose to become a German philosopher, economist, political theorist, sociologist, journalist, author of Das Kapital and revolutionary socialist.
1819:[Art] A depiction of Hagar and her son Ishmael in the desert (1819) by François-Joseph Navez
1819:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Arthur Bell Nicholls (6 January 1819 – 2 December 1906) was the husband of the English novelist Charlotte Brontë. Between 1845 and 1861 Nicholls was one of Patrick Brontë's curates and was married to his eldest surviving child, Charlotte, for the last nine months of her life. He cared for Patrick Brontë after Charlotte Brontë's death and spent the rest of his life in the shadow of her reputation. He returned to his native Ireland, remarried and left the ministry.
1819:[Who] Inventor of the Sewing Machine. On July 9, 1819, Elias Howe, inventor of the first practical sewing machine, was born in Spencer, Massachusetts.
1819:[Tourism][India] Shimla (Himachal Pradesh): Established in 1819, Shimla served as the official summer capital of British India. It features prominent colonial architecture like the Viceregal Lodge and Christ Church.
1819:[Tourism][India] Ooty / Udhagamandalam (Tamil Nadu): Founded in 1819 in the Nilgiri Hills, Ooty became the primary summer resort for the Madras Presidency, known for its botanical gardens, cottage architecture, and the Nilgiri Mountain Railway.
1820s:[Space] Started observing the Schwab's cycle of sun, and seen evidence from 8,000 years back.
1820s: Bishop's College, was established by the first Bishop of Calcutta, Thomas Middleton. It was a part of a scheme for a theological college along the lines of that at Cambridge. It contained a chapel, houses, library and lecture rooms. It later became the Calcutta Engineering College.
1820 (Apr 21): during a lecture, Ørsted noticed a compass needle deflected from magnetic north when an electric current from a battery was switched on and off, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism.
1820 (Apr 21): during a lecture, Ørsted noticed a compass needle deflected from magnetic north when an electric current from a battery was switched on and off, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism.
1820:[Geography] On 28 January 1820, a Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev reached 69° 21' south latitude, 2° 15' west longitude, and on 2 February, 66° 25' south latitude, 1° 11' west longitude, at both of which positions he was stopped by the pack. He then steered eastward, and on 17 February reached 69° 6' south latitude, and on the 19th, 68° 5' south latitude, 16° 37' east longitude. Later, he reached 66° 53' south latitude, 40° 56' east longitude, where he thought land must be near, on account of the numbers of birds. Ten months later an American sealer, Nathaniel Palmer, became the first to sight Antarctica on 17 November 1820. The first landing was most likely just over a year later when English-born American Captain John Davis, a sealer, set foot on the ice.
1820:[Geography] The first generally recognized sighting of the Antarctic continent was made at a point within 32 km (20 mi) of the Princess Martha Coast on 27 or 28 January 1820. The Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, on the ships Vostok and Mirny.
1820: Ørsted discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields.
William Sturgeon (UK) invented the electromagnet in 1824. His first electromagnet was a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that was wrapped with about 18 turns of bare copper wire (insulated wire didn't exist yet). The iron was varnished to insulate it from the windings.
1820 (Sep): André-Marie Ampère's friend and eventual eulogist François Arago (France) showed the members of the French Academy of Sciences the surprising discovery of Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted that a magnetic needle is deflected by an adjacent electric current.
Ampère began developing a mathematical and physical theory to understand the relationship between electricity and magnetism.
He devise through experimentation the formula for the angular dependence of the force between two current elements.
1820: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820 – 1891) born. He was a philosopher, academic, educator, printer, publisher, entrepreneur, reformer, and philanthropist. His efforts to simplify and modernise Bangla prose were significant. He was a Bengali polymath and a key figure of the Bengal Renaissance.
1820: Indian migrants began arriving in the United States as early as 1820. Though few in number at the time, the Indian population has surged since the 1990s to become the second-largest immigrant group in the country after Mexicans, and ahead of those born in China, the Philippines, and Vietnam.
William Sturgeon (UK) invented the electromagnet in 1824. His first electromagnet was a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that was wrapped with about 18 turns of bare copper wire (insulated wire didn't exist yet). The iron was varnished to insulate it from the windings.
1820 (Sep): André-Marie Ampère's friend and eventual eulogist François Arago (France) showed the members of the French Academy of Sciences the surprising discovery of Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted that a magnetic needle is deflected by an adjacent electric current.
Ampère began developing a mathematical and physical theory to understand the relationship between electricity and magnetism.
He devise through experimentation the formula for the angular dependence of the force between two current elements.
1820: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820 – 1891) born. He was a philosopher, academic, educator, printer, publisher, entrepreneur, reformer, and philanthropist. His efforts to simplify and modernise Bangla prose were significant. He was a Bengali polymath and a key figure of the Bengal Renaissance.
1820: Indian migrants began arriving in the United States as early as 1820. Though few in number at the time, the Indian population has surged since the 1990s to become the second-largest immigrant group in the country after Mexicans, and ahead of those born in China, the Philippines, and Vietnam.
1820 (Apr):[Physics][EM][Research] Hans Christian Ørsted observed that an electrical current in a wire caused a nearby compass needle to move. At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework. However, three months later he began more intensive investigations. Soon thereafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.
1820:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë's family moved a few miles to the village of Haworth, on the edge of the moors, where her father had been appointed perpetual curate of St Michael and All Angels Church.
1820:[Music][Art] Franz Peter Schubert (/ˈʃuːbərt/; German: [fʁants ˈpeːtɐ ˈʃuːbɐt]; 31 January 1797 – 19 November 1828) was an Austrian composer of the late Classical and early Romantic eras. Despite his short life, Schubert left behind a vast oeuvre, including more than 600 Lieder (art songs in German) and other vocal works, seven complete symphonies, sacred music, operas, incidental music, and a large body of piano and chamber music.
1820:[Business] Iconic Scotch brand Johnnie Walker is celebrating 200 years since founder John Walker first threw open the doors to a small grocery store in rural Scotland in 1820, beginning a journey that took Johnnie Walker whiskies to the four corners of the world.
1821:[www] 1821–1822: Conceived the Difference Engine to automatically compute mathematical and astronomical tables without human error.1823: Secured British government funding to begin building the full-scale Difference Engine.1827: Suffered personal tragedy with the deaths of his father, his wife Georgiana, and several of their children.1833: Funding and construction for the Difference Engine stalled due to escalating costs and disputes with his chief engineer, Joseph Clement.1835: Conceived the Analytical Engine, a revolutionary general-purpose programmable mechanical computer featuring an arithmetic "mill," a memory "store," and punch-card input.
1821 (Sep 15):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Charlotte Brontë's mother Maria Branwell died of cancer on leaving five daughters, Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte, Emily and Anne, and a son, Branwell, to be taken care of by her sister, Elizabeth Branwell.1821:[Russia][Book][Military][Litt] Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (11 November [O.S. 30 October] 1821 – 9 February [O.S. 28 January] 1881) was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist and journalist. He is regarded as one of the greatest novelists in both Russian and world literature,[3] and many of his works are considered highly influential masterpieces. Dostoevsky's literary works explore the human condition in the troubled political, social and spiritual atmospheres of 19th-century Russia, and engage with a variety of philosophical and religious themes.
1821:Various Balkan peoples began to assert their independence and form their own nation-states. Examples include Greece (1821), Serbia and Montenegro (1878), Romania (1881), Bulgaria (1908), and Albania (1912). (Balkanisation)
1822: Fourier Transform invented. Joseph Fourier showed that some functions could be written as an infinite sum of harmonics. the transformation helps in finding solution of differential equations and the analysis of filters.
Dr. Chris Chatfield, around 2000, said that "... the Laplace and the Fourier transforms [of a causal function] are the same, provided that the real part of 's' is zero."
1823: Map of British India, 1823 by Fielding Lucas Jr. (1781-1854).
1823: 'Hindoostan or India' drawn and engraved by J. Russel, published in Barclay's Universal Dictionary, 1823. Copper engraved map with full original hand colouring.
1823: Walker's Atlas published a map of India in London.
1823: Map of British India, 1823 by Fielding Lucas Jr. (1781-1854).
1823: 'Hindoostan or India' drawn and engraved by J. Russel, published in Barclay's Universal Dictionary, 1823. Copper engraved map with full original hand colouring.
1823: Walker's Atlas published a map of India in London.
1823:[Tourism][India] After 4 years of SImla capital, Mussoorie (Uttarakhand): Established in 1823 and often called the "Queen of the Hills," it was developed early on as a popular sanatorium and military escape with classic old bungalows.
1823: JIPMER originated on 1 January 1823 as "Ecole de Médicine de Pondichéry," a medical school established by the French imperial government in India to train French citizens in Pondichéry.
1823: Friedrich Max Müller (6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900), generally known as Max Müller, was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic field of Indian studies and the discipline of comparative religion.
1823: JIPMER originated on 1 January 1823 as "Ecole de Médicine de Pondichéry," a medical school established by the French imperial government in India to train French citizens in Pondichéry.
1823: Friedrich Max Müller (6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900), generally known as Max Müller, was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic field of Indian studies and the discipline of comparative religion.
1823:[Research][Books] Gauss published his monograph "Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae" where among other things he introduces several important statistical concepts, such as the method of least squares, the method of maximum likelihood, and the normal distribution.
1824: John Cadbury began to sell tea, coffee and drinking chocolate from his premises in Birmingham. Cadbury was founded in 1824 in Birmingham, England, by John Cadbury (1801–1889), a Quaker who sold tea, coffee and drinking chocolate. Cadbury was founded by John Cadbury, who originally started a grocer's shop at 93 Bull Street in Birmingham. Here, John sold cocoa and drinking chocolate, preparing this himself with a pestle and mortar.
1824:[Education][UK][Public] University of Manchester founded.
1824: Louis had developed the system that we know today as braille, employing a 6-dot cell and based upon normal spelling.1824: John Cadbury began to sell tea, coffee and drinking chocolate from his premises in Birmingham. Cadbury was founded in 1824 in Birmingham, England, by John Cadbury (1801–1889), a Quaker who sold tea, coffee and drinking chocolate. Cadbury was founded by John Cadbury, who originally started a grocer's shop at 93 Bull Street in Birmingham. Here, John sold cocoa and drinking chocolate, preparing this himself with a pestle and mortar.
1824 (Aug):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë's father Patrick sent her, Emily, Maria, and Elizabeth to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire.
1824: To put it simply, Antarctica used to be called Australia. Then, in 1824, today's Australia took the name, leaving the icy continent essentially without a 'proper' name until the 1890s.
1824:[Business] The Glenlivet distillery is a Speyside single malt Scotch whisky distillery near Ballindalloch in Moray, Scotland, that produces single malt Scotch whisky. It is the oldest legal distillery in the Highlands of Scotland.
1824:[Business] The Macallan distillery was founded in 1824 by Alexander Reid in Craigellachie. It was initially a farm distillery, and the Macallan name came from the Gaelic word "magh", meaning "fertile ground," and "allan", referring to the local stream. The Macallan is generally considered to be the second or third highest-selling single-malt scotch, next to Glenfiddich and, by some accounts, Glenlivet. Originally, the Macallan was matured only in oak sherry casks brought to the distillery from Jerez de la Frontera, Spain. Beginning in 2004, the Macallan introduced a new main product, the Fine Oak series, with the whisky mellowed in bourbon oak casks as well as sherry ones. In 2018, the Fine Oak series was renamed as the Triple Cask Matured range.
1824:[Research][Ety] Joseph Fourier proposed the existence of an atmospheric effect that traps heat. The Greenhouse Effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824. Without this process the Earth would be too cold for any living thing to survive. Natural greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide, allow solar radiation to reach the Earth's surface. 1856: Eunice Newton Foote identified that carbon dioxide and water vapor trap heat. 1859: John Tyndall experimentally proved that water vapor and CO2 absorb infrared radiation. 1896: Svante Arrhenius published the first quantitative calculation of how atmospheric CO2 affects global temperatures. 1901: Nils Gustaf Ekholm introduced the term "greenhouse" to describe this phenomenon, recognizing the role of water vapor and CO2.
1825 (Jun):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë maintained that the school's poor conditions permanently affected her health and physical development, and hastened the deaths of Brontë's elder sisters Maria and Elizabeth. They both died of tuberculosis. Their father removed Brontë and her younger sister Maria from the school. Brontë later used the school as the basis for Lowood School in Jane Eyre, which is similarly affected by tuberculosis that is exacerbated by the poor conditions.
1825:[GeoPolitics][Military][Economics][APAC] the Diponegoro War (1825–1830)
1824:[crime][gov] The evolution of state-backed land acquisition laws took shape during 1824 and 1894. The Bengal Regulation Act of 1824 initiated state takeovers for infrastructure, leading up to the landmark Land Acquisition Act of 1894, which empowered governments to compel land handovers for "public purposes" while offering virtually no rights to resettlement or rehabilitation for displaced occupants.
----------------------------------------- 50 years of Independent USA --------------------------------------------
1826:[Space] The Sun's cycle of activity was discovered by an amateur astronomer, named Heinrich Schwabe, in Germany. Schwabe conducted observations of the Sun from 1826 to 1843 and determined that the Sun rotates on its axis once in 27 days.
1826:[Technology] Camera - The first practical photograph was taken by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.
1827: Ohm's Law (Germany)
1827 (Mar 5): Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace died aged 77 in Paris, France.
1827: Mahatma Jyotirao Phule born. He was an Indian activist, thinker, social reformer from Maharashtra. He fought for the eradication of untouchability and the caste system, women's emancipation and the reform of Hindu family life. He also formed the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth) to attain equal rights for peasants and people from lower castes. He was influenced from Thomas Paine, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.
1827 (Mar 5): Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace died aged 77 in Paris, France.
1827: Mahatma Jyotirao Phule born. He was an Indian activist, thinker, social reformer from Maharashtra. He fought for the eradication of untouchability and the caste system, women's emancipation and the reform of Hindu family life. He also formed the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth) to attain equal rights for peasants and people from lower castes. He was influenced from Thomas Paine, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.
1827:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] At home in Haworth Parsonage, 11YO Brontë acted as "the motherly friend and guardian of her younger sisters". She and her surviving siblings – Branwell, Emily and Anne – created this shared world, and began chronicling the lives and struggles of these times and inhabitants in their imaginary kingdom.
1828:[India][Culture][Extreme] Raja Ram Mohan Roy was an Indian reformer and writer who was one of the founders of the Brahmo Sabha in 1828, the precursor of the Brahmo Samaj, a socio-religious reform movement in the Indian subcontinent. He has been dubbed the "Father of Indian Renaissance.". Ram Mohan Roy (May 22, 1772, Radhanagar, Bengal Presidency - September 27, 1833, Bristol, England); 1828 (Age: 56) - Foundation of the Brahmo Sabha; instrumental in abolition of Sati in 1829.
1828:[EU][Armenia] Yerevan became part of the Russian Empire, which led to the repatriation of Armenians whose ancestors had been forcibly relocated in the 17th century.
1829:[Music] An instrument called accordion was first patented in 1829 by Cyrill Demian, of Armenian origin, in Vienna. Demian's instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments. It only had a left hand buttonboard, with the right hand simply operating the bellows. MB Prakash who is India's only accordion tuner and composer.
1829:[Books] Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881) was a British essayist, historian, and philosopher from the Scottish Lowlands. A leading writer of the Victorian era, he exerted a profound influence on 19th-century art, literature, and philosophy. He published early thoughts on the philosophy of history in "Thoughts on History" (1830) and wrote his first pieces of social criticism, "Signs of the Times" (1829) and "Characteristics" (1831).
1829:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë wrote her first known poem at the age of 13. and was to go on to write more than 200 poems in the course of her life. Many of her poems were "published" in their homemade magazine Branwell's Blackwood's Magazine, and concerned the fictional world of Glass Town.
1829:[US] Tremont House (1829 – c. 1895), sometimes called the Tremont Hotel, was a hotel designed in 1829 by Isaiah Rogers in Boston, Massachusetts. Notable guests included Davy Crockett and Charles Dickens.
1829:[Business] Tullamore Dew, rendered in most branding as Tullamore D.E.W., is a brand of Irish whiskey produced by William Grant & Sons. It is the second-largest-selling brand of Irish whiskey globally, with sales of over 1,500,000 cases per annum as of 2020.
1829:[Tourism][India] 6 years after est Mussoorie, Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra): Established in 1829, it served as the designated summer capital for the Bombay Presidency in the Western Ghats.
1829:[crime] A Persian game called As-Nas arrives in New Orleans via French settlers, evolving directly into modern Poker.
1830s:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who] Tarachand Chakraborty (1805, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency - 1867, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency); 1830s-1840s (Age: 20s-30s) - Active in the Young Bengal movement and promoting liberal thought.
1830s:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who] Rashikkrishna Mallik (1810, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency - 1858, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency); 1830s (Age: 20s) - Prominent figure in the Young Bengal movement; known for his radical views and advocacy for social reform.
1830:[Art] Liberty Leading the People, a painting by Eugène Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830, which toppled King Charles X of France.1830s: The idea of wireless communication predates the discovery of "radio" with experiments in "wireless telegraphy" via inductive and capacitive induction and transmission through the ground, water, and even train tracks from the 1830s on.
1830 (May 16): Fourier died aged 62 at Paris, Kingdom of France. He was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, a tomb decorated with an Egyptian motif to reflect his position as secretary of the Cairo Institute, and his collation of Description de l'Égypte. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
1830: Swaminarayan died at Gujrat.
1830:[Book] Carl von Clausewitz's On War.
1830:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Mary Anna Bell was born, will become second wife to Brontë's widow husband Nicholls.
1830:[Mntngg] The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), often shortened to RGS, is a learned society and professional body for geography based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical sciences, the society has 16,000 members, with its work reaching the public through publications, research groups and lectures.
1830:[India] The oldest surviving hotel in India is the Great Eastern Hotel, now known as The LaLiT Great Eastern, located in Kolkata. It was originally established in 1840 or 1841 by David Wilson. While Spence's Hotel, also in Kolkata, was established earlier in 1830, it no longer exists. Originally known as the Auckland Hotel, it was renamed the Great Eastern and became a prominent establishment, attracting British officers, diplomats, and aristocrats.
1830:[Biz][India] India's first major modern hotel was Spence's Hotel, established in Kolkata (Calcutta) around 1830 by John Spence. Shortly after, the famous Auckland Hotel (now The LaLiT Great Eastern Kolkata) was opened in 1840 by David Wilson. In 1903, The Taj Mahal Palace, Mumbai opens as India's first grand luxury hotel built entirely by an Indian industrialist, Jamsetji Tata.
1831, August 29: first experimental demonstration of electromagnetic induction by Michael Faraday (England). He wrapped two wires around opposite sides of an iron ring (torus).
1831:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 15YO Brontë continued her education for another 2 years at a boarding school twenty miles away in Mirfield, Roe Head (now part of Hollybank Special School), where she met her lifelong friends and correspondents Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor.
1831:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Emily and Anne 'seceded' from the Glass Town Confederacy to create a 'spin-off' called Gondal, which included many of their poems.
1830:[UK][India][Education] Alexander Duff (25 April 1806 – 12 February 1878), was a Scottish missionary in India; where he played a large part in the development of higher education. He was a Moderator of the General Assembly and convener of the foreign missions committee of the Free Church of Scotland and a scientific liberal reformer of anglicized evangelism across the Empire. He was the first overseas missionary of the Church of Scotland to India. On 13 July 1830 he founded the General Assembly's Institution in Calcutta, now known as the Scottish Church College. He also played a part in establishing the University of Calcutta.
1831:[India] The Kol Rebellion/Uprising (1831–1832) was a major indigenous uprising in the Chota Nagpur plateau region (present-day Jharkhand, India) against British colonial administration and the exploitation by non-tribal landlords and moneylenders.
1832: The first dynamo based on Faraday's principles was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a French instrument maker. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank. The spinning magnet was positioned so that its north and south poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped with insulated wire.
1832:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë and Branwell concentrated on an evolution of the Glass Town Confederacy called Angria. Christine Alexander, a Brontë juvenilia historian, wrote "both Brontë and Branwell ensured the consistency of their imaginary world. When Branwell exuberantly kills off important characters in his manuscripts, Brontë comes to the rescue and, in effect, resurrects them for the next stories [...]; and when Branwell becomes bored with his inventions, such as the Glass Town magazine he edits, Brontë takes over his initiative and keeps the publication going for several more years".: 6–7 The sagas the siblings created were episodic and elaborate, and they exist in incomplete manuscripts, some of which have been published as juvenilia. They provided them with an obsessive interest during childhood and early adolescence, which prepared them for literary vocations in adulthood.
1832:[Mntngg] George Everest owned a house in Mussoorie, India for about 11 years. He purchased it, sight unseen, from General William Sampson Whish (1787–1853). Built in 1832, the house is known today as Sir George Everest's House and Laboratory, or Park House. The house is in Park Estate about 6 kilometres (4 mi) west of Gandhi Chowk / Library Bazaar (the west end of Mall Road in Mussoorie). The location has panoramic views of the Doon Valley on one side and the Aglar River valley and the Himalayan Range to the north. After renovation at a cost of Rs 23.71 crore, the house was opened as a museum in December 2021.
1832:[mntngg] Under the leadership of Everest, the longitudinal series of the “triangle” survey was completed from Seronj (in Madhya Pradesh) to Calcutta (West Bengal). While still working on mapping Calcutta, Bengal, Everest had begun his search for a mathematician, and soon enough, John Tytler, a professor of Mathematics at the Hindu (now Presidency) College, recommended 19-year-old Radhanath’s name.
1832:[mntngg] Radhanath, a student of the college since 1824, was one of the first two Indians to read Newton’s Principia (the other being Rajnarayan Basak) and by 1832, he had studied Euclid’s Elements, Jephson’s Fluxion and Analytical Geometry and Astronomy by Windhouse.Taking inspiration from these prestigious papers, he devised a new method to draw a common tangent to two circles, when he was just a teenager.
1833: Government of India Act 1 or Charter Act of 1833.
1833: In 1833 an act of Parliament was passed to constitute a new presidency (province), with its capital at Agra. The provisional establishment of the Governor of Agra happened in 1833 until the Presidency of Agra was renamed as North-Western Provinces in 1836.
1833:[Business][Polity][mgmt] The Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry is a non-governmental trade association and advocacy group based in West Bengal, India. It is the oldest chamber of commerce in India, and one of the oldest in Asia. Established in 1853, finding its origin in 1833–34, it is the only such institution in India. The organization has its headquarters at the former Royal Exchange in B. B. D. Bagh, Kolkata, which was once the residence of Lord William Bentinck, the first Governor-General of India. The Bengal Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1853, replacing the former Calcutta Chamber of Commerce, which was merged into the new organization. At the outset, it had eighty-six members in Calcutta and eighteen others. Its objects included[2] – To establish just and equitable principles in trade; To form a code or codes of practice to facilitate transaction of business; To maintain uniformity in rules, regulations and usages of trade; To communicate with Chambers of Commerce and other mercantile and public bodies throughout the world, and concert and promote measures for the protection of trade and traders.
1833:[Books] In 1833 Tennyson published his second book of poetry, which notably included the first version of "The Lady of Shalott". The volume met heavy criticism, which so discouraged Tennyson that he did not publish again for ten years, although he did continue to write. That same year, Hallam died suddenly and unexpectedly after suffering a cerebral haemorrhage while on a holiday in Vienna. Hallam's death had a profound effect on Tennyson and inspired several poems, including "In the Valley of Cauteretz" and "In Memoriam A.H.H.", a long poem detailing the "Way of the Soul".
1833:[Books] "Ulysses" is a poem in blank verse by the Victorian poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892), written in 1833 and published in 1842 in his well-received second volume of poetry. An oft-quoted poem, it is a popular example of the dramatic monologue. Facing old age, mythical hero Ulysses describes his discontent and restlessness upon returning to his kingdom, Ithaca, after his far-ranging travels. Despite his reunion with his wife Penelope and his son Telemachus, Ulysses yearns to explore again.
1833:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 17YO Brontë wrote a novella, The Green Dwarf, using the name Wellesley. Around this time, her stories shifted from tales of the supernatural to more realistic stories.
1834: The word "scientist" was invented by the William Whewell of Cambridge for the English language to describe someone who studies the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment. It was first published in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences published in the Quarterly Review.
1834: Sir C. T. Metcalfe became Governer of Agra from 14 November 1834 till 20 March 1835. W. Blunt and A. Ross followed till 1836.
1834 (Jun):[India] After the Charter Act, there was a split among the British regarding the mode of education to be imparted to Indians. While the orientalists believed that Indians should be educated in their own languages and taught their own scriptures and texts, the other group decided that English education was the best kind to be imparted. It was in the midst of this that Macaulay landed in India in June 1834, as the President of the General Committee of Public Instruction (GCPI).
1834:[Law][India] Law Commission estd.
1835:[edu] Rensselaer School (now Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute) awarded the first formal civil engineering degrees to four students in the United States.
1835:The oldest news agency in the world is Agence France-Presse (AFP), founded in 1835 in Paris. Originally known as Agence Havas, it was the first news agency to provide a global news service.
1835:[Education][Culture] Macaulay's Minute on Education, which advocated for English-based Western education in India, was published on February 2, 1835. This minute was a significant step towards shaping the British educational policy in India. While not immediately changing the entire system, it influenced Lord William Bentinck's decision, which led to the English Education Act of 1835, formally shifting the focus of British-funded education toward English language and Western learning.
1835: Indian Railway Reservation System started at Chintadripet, near Madras (Red Hill Railroad).
1835: workers in Philadelphia organised the first general strike in North America, led by Irish coal heavers. Their banners read, From 6 to 6, ten hours work and two hours for meals.
1835: workers in Philadelphia organised the first general strike in North America, led by Irish coal heavers. Their banners read, From 6 to 6, ten hours work and two hours for meals.
1835 (Feb 2):[India] British historian and politician Thomas Babington Macaulay presented his ‘Minute on Indian Education’ that sought to establish the need to impart English education to Indian ‘natives’. Macaulayism refers to the policy of introducing the English education system to British colonies. The term is derived from the name of British politician Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800–1859), who served on the Governor-General's Council and was instrumental in making English the medium of instruction for higher education in India. Macaulay’s proposals were officially sanctioned in March 1835. In 1837, English was made the court language. In 1844, high government posts were open to Indians. Later the Wood’s Despatch in 1854 regularised British efforts for education in India.
1835:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 19YO Brontë returned to Roe Head as a teacher for 3 years. Unhappy and lonely as a teacher at Roe Head, Brontë took out her sorrows in poetry, writing a series of melancholic poems.
1835 (Dec):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 19YO Brontë wrote "We wove a Web in Childhood" and drew a sharp contrast between her miserable life as a teacher and the vivid imaginary worlds she and her siblings had created. In another poem "Morning was its freshness still" written at the same time, Brontë wrote "Tis bitter sometimes to recall/Illusions once deemed fair". Many of her poems concerned the imaginary world of Angria, often concerning Byronic heroes.
1835:[Who] Samuel Slater (born June 9, 1768, Belper, Derbyshire, England—died April 21, 1835, Webster, Massachusetts, U.S.) was an English American businessman and founder of the American cotton-textile industry. (father of textiles)
1835:[Tourism][India] 6 years after est Mahabelshwar, Darjeeling (West Bengal): Set up in 1835, this eastern Himalayan town was developed for tea plantations and health resorts, famous today for the UNESCO-listed Darjeeling Himalayan Railway ("Toy Train").
1836: The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland. He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the induced secondary EMF will be.
1836: [Maths][Research][Computer] Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, alumni of University of Berlin invented Jacobian. Planetary theory and other particular dynamical problems likewise occupied his attention from time to time. While contributing to celestial mechanics, he introduced the Jacobi integral (1836) for a sidereal coordinate system. Jacobians later helped greatly in analytical investigations and disease modelling.
1836 (Dec):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 20YO Brontë wrote to the Poet Laureate Robert Southey asking him for encouragement of her career as a poet. Southey replied, famously, that "Literature cannot be the business of a woman's life, and it ought not to be. The more she is engaged in her proper duties, the less leisure will she have for it even as an accomplishment and a recreation." This advice she respected but did not heed.
1837: Poisson's Distribution. The distribution was first introduced by Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) and published, together with his probability theory, in 1837 in his work Recherches sur la probabilité des jugements en matière criminelle et en matière civile ("Research on the Probability of Judgments in Criminal and Civil Matters").
1837: Act of 1837 regulated Post Offices throughout the three presidencies in India.
1837: Invention of Telegraph by Morse of America.
1837: The world's first successful e-telecom device by Charles Wheatstone and William Cooke.
1837: Act of 1837 regulated Post Offices throughout the three presidencies in India.
1837: Invention of Telegraph by Morse of America.
1837: The world's first successful e-telecom device by Charles Wheatstone and William Cooke.
1837:[Who] Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (1799-1837) was a prominent Russian poet, playwright, and novelist, often considered the founder of modern Russian literature. He is celebrated for his contributions to the Romantic movement and is known for works like Eugene Onegin, Boris Godunov, and Ruslan and Ludmila. Pushkin's legacy includes a rich body of poetry, prose, and dramatic works that have shaped the course of Russian literature and continue to influence writers today.
1838:[edu] 1838–1840s: Norwich University in Vermont and the University of-kind programs began offering formal civil engineering curricula.
1838:[Space] The light-year (ly) unit appeared a few years after the first successful measurement of the distance to a star other than the Sun, by Friedrich Bessel in 1838. The star was 61 Cygni, and he used a 160-millimetre (6.2 in) heliometre designed by Joseph von Fraunhofer. A light-year, alternatively spelled light year, is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances and is equivalent to about 9.46 trillion kilometers (9.46×1012 km), or 5.88 trillion miles (5.88×1012 mi). A light-year is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one Julian year (365.25 days).
1838:[Space] The light-year (ly) unit appeared a few years after the first successful measurement of the distance to a star other than the Sun, by Friedrich Bessel in 1838. The star was 61 Cygni, and he used a 160-millimetre (6.2 in) heliometre designed by Joseph von Fraunhofer. A light-year, alternatively spelled light year, is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances and is equivalent to about 9.46 trillion kilometers (9.46×1012 km), or 5.88 trillion miles (5.88×1012 mi). A light-year is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one Julian year (365.25 days).
1838:[Space] The first successful published direct measurements of an object at interstellar distances were undertaken by German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in 1838, who used this approach to calculate the 3.5-parsec distance of 61 Cygni. ParSec, unit of space distance.
1838:[Space] In 1838, Friedrich Bessel measured its distance from Earth at about 10.4 light-years, very close to the actual value of about 11.4 light-years; this was the first distance estimate for any star other than the Sun, and first star to have its stellar parallax measured.
1838:[Technology] Louis Daguerre's 1838 photograph of the Boulevard du Temple, Paris. Louis Daguerre's photograph of a Paris street scene shows a man standing along the Boulevard du Temple getting his shoes shined. It is widely believed to be the earliest extant photograph of human figures.
1838:[www] Invented the locomotive "cowcatcher" (pilot) for clearing railway tracks.1842: Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea published the first description of the Analytical Engine, which Ada Lovelace translated and heavily annotated, adding the first computer algorithm.1864: Published his autobiography, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher.18 October 1871: Died at his home in Marylebone, London, leaving his grand computing designs unfinished.
1839:[Education][US][Public] University of Missouri founded.
1839:[US][Edu][Culture] Beta Theta Pi: With a history dating back to 1839, Beta Theta Pi is one of the oldest fraternities in the United States. - most elite frat
1839:[Technology]Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre invented the daguerreotype process in France. The invention was announced to the public on August 19, 1839 at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris. Photography.
1839:[Technology][Culture] Robert Cornelius, an American photographer, took a daguerreotype of himself in 1839. Taken two years after the invention of the daguerreotype but just months after Daguerre shared his invention with the world, the image is thought to be both the first selfie and one of the first photographs of a person.
1839:[Physics] Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect while studying the effect of light on electrolytic cells. Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work on photovoltaics was instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered photoconductivity in selenium while testing the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables.
1839:[History][APAC][SEAs] Cyril Skinner, The Civil War in Kelantan in 1839, Kuala Lumpur: Monographs of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society, 1965.
1839:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 23YO Brontë took up the first of many positions as governess to families in Yorkshire, a career she pursued fpr 3 years, until she was 26YO. Brontë was of slight build and was less than five feet tall. Brontë did not enjoy her work as a governess, noting her employers treated her almost as a slave, constantly humiliating her.
1840s: The Industrial Revolution paced-down after around 80 years. Lasted for around a century, from the mid 17th to mid 18th. Mechanical Engineering boosted during this period. Textile manufacture, Metallurgy, Steam power, Machine tools, Chemicals, Cement, Gas lighting, Glass making, Paper machine, Agriculture, Mining, Canals, Roads, and Railways were developed.
1840s:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who][Women] Fatima Sheikh (c. 1831, Pune, Maharashtra - Date Unknown); Mid-19th century (Active from 1840s, Age: 10s-20s) - Pioneering educator and social reformer; worked alongside the Phules in establishing schools for girls and untouchables.
1840s:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who] Akshaykumar Datta (July 15, 1820, Chupi, Bengal Presidency - January 18, 1886, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency); 1840s-1850s (Age: 20s-30s) - Editor of Tattwabodhini Patrika, promoting rationalism and social reform through his writings.
1840(Aug 9):[Music] The first harmonium was made in 1840 by the French inventor Alexander Debain in France. He later patented his Harmonium in Paris on August 9, 1840. Harmonium with a Swarmandal (a small, harp-like instrument, similar to Zither and Autoharp) was produced by Bhishmadev Vedi. And by the late nineteenth-century, the harmonium was brought to India.
1840:The earliest known or surviving photographic capture within India dates to 1840 and is a lithograph based upon a daguerreotype of the Sans Souci Theatre in Calcutta. By the later 1840s, the first known commercial photographic studio began its operation in Calcutta.
1840 (Sep 22):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Anne Lister died, Brontë was near to her.
1841:[Food][Research][Biology][Agri] In 1841, Edmond Albius, a 12-year-old slave who lived on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, discovered that the plant could be hand-pollinated.
1841:[Mntngg][Extreme] 35 year long Great Trigonometric Survey of India ended. (under the leadership of Sir George Everest, who served as Surveyor General of India from 1830 to 1843).
1842:[GeoPolitics][LATAM]: Carlos Antonio López signed a non-aggression pact with Argentina and officially declared independence of Paraguay.
1842:[Books] "My Last Duchess" is a poem by Robert Browning, frequently anthologised as an example of the dramatic monologue. It first appeared in 1842 in Browning's Dramatic Lyrics. The poem is composed in 28 rhyming couplets of iambic pentameter.
1842:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 26YO Brontë and 25YO? Emily travelled to Brussels to enrol at the boarding school run by Constantin Héger (1809–1896) and his wife Claire Zoé Parent Héger (1804–1887). During her time in Brussels, Brontë, who favoured the Protestant ideal of an individual in direct contact with God, objected to the stern Catholicism of Madame Héger, which she considered a tyrannical religion that enforced conformity and submission to the Pope. In return for board and tuition Brontë taught English and Emily taught music.
1842 (Oct):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Their time at the school was cut short when their aunt Elizabeth Branwell, who had joined the family in Haworth to look after the children after their mother's death, died of internal obstruction.
1842: Pilsner Urquell is the original Pils lager from which golden beers the world over are derived. It has been brewed in Plzeň, a Czech town south west of Prague, since 1842, and is commonly perceived as the premier Czech beer. Czech drinks most beer worldwide, followed by Austrian and Polish, while Congo, Russia and Norway comes at last.
1842:[GeoPolitics] One notable example is "An Appeal to the Civilized World: Or The Wrongs of My Country" by D.O. Sypniewski, published in 1842. This book specifically addressed the plight of Poland under Russian occupation, detailing the suppression of its culture and people. Sypniewski aimed to garner international support for the Polish cause and pressure Russia to end its occupation.
1842: The English poet and Whig politician Thomas Babington Macaulay wrote ‘Horatius at the Bridge.’ This poem was part of his book, “Lays of Ancient Rome,” a collection of ballads inspired by Roman legends, history, and mythology. It was an immensely successful publication and has been beloved since it was released in 1842.
1843: Sunday officially became an off day since 1843 . It took the British government a decade long on making Sunday an official holiday in India as was the case in Britain. The story behind it is - According to Christianity God created the world in 6 days and on the 7th day he took rest.
1843: The Laurent series was named after and first published by Pierre Alphonse Laurent. Karl Weierstrass may have discovered it first in a paper written in 1841, but it was not published until after his death.
1843: Britain Punch coined the term 'cartoon' to describe its satirical sketches, which soon spread to other newspapers.
1843; Indian Slavery Act, 1843
1843: Prompted by the idea of meeting requirement of trained engineering personnel for the Public Works Department, the then council of Education, Bengal, decided to open Civil Engineering classes and a Professorship in Civil Engineering was created at Hindu College, Calcutta, in the year 1843-44.
1843: The Bombay Presidency, also known as Bombay and Sind from 1843 to 1936 and the Bombay Province, was an administrative subdivision (presidency) of British India.
1843 (Sep): Ada Lovelace credited with the first programming language. She translated and expanded Menabrea's notes on Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, including an algorithm for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, regarded as the world's first computer program. Broader Vision: Hypothesized that the engine could manipulate symbols and compose complex music or graphics, not just crunch numbers.
1843: The Laurent series was named after and first published by Pierre Alphonse Laurent. Karl Weierstrass may have discovered it first in a paper written in 1841, but it was not published until after his death.
1843: Britain Punch coined the term 'cartoon' to describe its satirical sketches, which soon spread to other newspapers.
1843; Indian Slavery Act, 1843
1843: Prompted by the idea of meeting requirement of trained engineering personnel for the Public Works Department, the then council of Education, Bengal, decided to open Civil Engineering classes and a Professorship in Civil Engineering was created at Hindu College, Calcutta, in the year 1843-44.
1843: The Bombay Presidency, also known as Bombay and Sind from 1843 to 1936 and the Bombay Province, was an administrative subdivision (presidency) of British India.
1843 (Sep): Ada Lovelace credited with the first programming language. She translated and expanded Menabrea's notes on Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, including an algorithm for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, regarded as the world's first computer program. Broader Vision: Hypothesized that the engine could manipulate symbols and compose complex music or graphics, not just crunch numbers.
1843:[www] Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea published the first description of the Analytical Engine, which Ada Lovelace translated and heavily annotated, adding the first computer algorithm.
1843 (Jan):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 26YO Brontë returned alone to Brussels in to take up a teaching post at the school. Her second stay was not happy: she was homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Héger.
1843 (Mar 21):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Robert Southey died aged 68 in London. Brontë admired him?
1843:[Business] Glenmorangie distillery is a distillery in Tain, Ross-shire, Scotland, that produces single malt Scotch whisky. The distillery is owned by The Glenmorangie Company Ltd, whose main product is the range of Glenmorangie single malt whisky.
1844:[Economics][Research] Jules Dupuit applied the concept to infrastructure, establishing that the demand curve is derived from marginal utility.
1844: Samuel Morse's telegraph system. For three years, the U.S. Post Office ran the pioneering Washington to Baltimore line. By that time other private telegraph companies had developed (the first connected New York and Philadelphia) and were rapidly growing.
"What hath God wrought?", the official first Morse code message transmitted in the USA on May 24, 1844 to officially open the Baltimore-Washington telegraph line.
It is a electromagnetic telegraph that would bridge the communications gap between California and the rest of the country.
1844:[Management] A Software Process (SP) cost analysis model is a structured approach used to estimate, track, and optimize the resources—time, money, and effort—required to implement, improve, or execute software development processes. These models help quantify the consequences of adopting methodologies such as Personal Software Process (PSP), Team Software Process (TSP), or Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI).
1844 (Jan):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 26YO Brontë returned to Haworth and used the time spent in Brussels as the inspiration for some of the events in The Professor and Villette. Brontë and her sisters made headway with opening their own boarding school in the family home. It was advertised as "The Misses Brontë's Establishment for the Board and Education of a limited number of Young Ladies" and inquiries were made to prospective pupils and sources of funding.
1844 (Oct):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 27YO Brontë and her two younger sisters abandons the boarding school project, as it didn't attract any funding or potential lady pupil.
1845:[Education][UK][Public] Queen's University Belfast founded.
1845: The East Indian Railway Company, later known as the East Indian Railway (EIR), introduced railways to eastern and northern India, while the Companies such as the Great Indian Peninsular Railway, South Indian Railway, Central India Railway and the North-Western Railway operated in other parts of India. The company was established 1 June 1845 in London by a deed of settlement with a capital of £4,000,000, largely raised in London.1845 (Dec):[History][India] The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846, 4 months) was a major conflict between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company, triggered by internal instability following Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death and mutual suspicion. Initiated when Sikh forces crossed the Sutlej River in December 1845, the war featured intense battles like Mudki and Ferozeshah, ending in a British victory due to treachery by Sikh leadership and the Treaty of Lahore (1846), which severely weakened Sikh sovereignty.
1845: the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. According to The Imperial Gazetteer of India: "Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the Vale of Kashmir." [Kashmir] [India]
1845:[India] Kodaikanal was established in 1845 to serve as a refuge from the high temperatures and tropical diseases during the summer in the plains. It is a popular tourist destination and is referred to as the "Princess of Hill stations" with much of the local economy is based on the hospitality industry serving tourism.
1845:[SpaceX] 5 Astraea is an asteroid in the asteroid belt. This object is orbiting the Sun at a distance of 385 million kilometres with a period of 4.13 yr and an orbital eccentricity of 0.19. The orbital plane is inclined at an angle of 5.37° to the plane of the ecliptic. It is spinning with a period of 16.8 h. Wikipedia Orbital period: 1,511 days Radius: 53.35 km Discovered: 8 December 1845 Discoverer: Karl Ludwig Hencke Spectral type: S-type asteroid Asteroid group: Asteroid belt Apparent magnitude (V): 12.33
1845:[History][India] The first major war involving the Sikh Empire as a sovereign state against the British was the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846). Triggered by instability following Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death and British expansionism, the war began when Sikh forces crossed the Sutlej River in December 1845, leading to major battles at Mudki, Ferozeshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon.
1846:Plastic was discovered by famous German chemist Christian Schonbein in 1846. Plastics were actually discovered accidentally. Christian was experimenting in his kitchen and by accident, he spilt a mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
1846: FAX machine came-in the world as Electric Printing Telegraph. Scottish inventor Alexander Bain worked on chemical mechanical fax type devices and in 1846 was able to reproduce graphic signs in laboratory experiments.
1846: Neptune was discovered by John Couch Adams in 1846. Adams was an English astronomer and mathematician who, at the age of 24, was the first person to predict the position of a planetary mass beyond Uranus. Adams did not publish his prediction and it is a miracle that he is given credit by the scientific community for his work (let this be a lesson!). German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle (along with Heinrich Louis d'Arrest) confirmed the existance of Neptune based on independent, published, calculations done by French mathematician Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier. Sometimes you will see Couch and Le Verrier cited together as the "discoverers of Neptune".
1846 (Jun 28):[Music] The saxophone was invented by the Belgian instrument maker Adolphe Sax in the early 1840s and was patented on 28 June 1846. The saxophone is a type of single-reed woodwind instrument with a conical body, usually made of brass. As with all single-reed instruments, sound is produced when a reed on a mouthpiece vibrates to produce a sound wave inside the instrument's body.
1846 (May):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] First published work of Charlotte Brontë. Charlotte, Emily, and Anne self-financed the publication of a joint collection of poems under their assumed names Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell.
1846:[Writing][Art][Who] Fyodor Dostoevsky's first published novel was "Poor Folk" (1846), also known as "Bednyye lyudi". It was a commercial success and helped establish him as a notable figure in Russian literature. In addition to his novels, Dostoevsky also wrote short stories, novellas, and essays. He is considered one of the greatest psychological novelists in the world, exploring themes of faith, morality, and the human condition. His major works, such as Crime and Punishment, The Brothers Karamazov, and The Idiot, are widely studied and admired. White Nights (1848) Notes from Underground (1864) The Gambler and other stories (1866) The Idiot (1869) The Brothers Karamazov (1880)
1846:[Who] In 1846, Henry Poole, credited as being the "Founder of Savile Row", opened an entrance to his tailoring premises at No. 32 Savile Row. The term bespoke is understood to have originated in Savile Row when cloth for a suit was said to "be spoken for" by individual customers.
1846:[Business] Dewar's heritage. founded in 1846 by john dewar. john dewar & sons ltd has grown from a small wine and spirits merchant shop in perth, scotland, to become a globally renowned and celebrated blended scotch whisky.
1847:[edu] The Institution of Mechanical Engineers was founded in Birmingham, England, giving the occupation formal professional status.
1847:[Education][India][Public] University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu founded.
1847 (Oct 12): Werner von Siemens and Johann Georg Halske (Berlin) founded Siemens (then, Telegraphen-Bauanstalt von Siemens & Halske), a company to manufacture a telegraph unique to that of Morse code.1847 (Feb 11): Thomas Alva Edison was born at Milan, Ohio, U.S..
1847: Liberia became Independednt of the United States.
1847 (Aug):[Books][UK][Who] Brontë's first manuscript, 'The Professor', did not secure a publisher, although she was heartened by an encouraging response from Smith, Elder & Co. of Cornhill, who expressed an interest in any longer works Currer Bell might wish to send. Brontë responded by finishing and sending a second manuscript in August 1847. Six weeks later, Jane Eyre was published. It tells the story of a plain governess, Jane, who, after difficulties in her early life, falls in love with her employer, Mr Rochester. They marry, but only after Rochester's insane first wife, of whom Jane initially has no knowledge, dies in a dramatic house fire. The book's style was innovative, combining Romanticism, naturalism with gothic melodrama, and broke new ground in being written from an intensely evoked first-person female perspective. Brontë believed art was most convincing when based on personal experience; in Jane Eyre she transformed the experience into a novel with universal appeal.
1847 (Oct 16):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Jane Eyre; (originally published as Jane Eyre: An Autobiography) is a novel by English writer Charlotte Brontë, published under the pen name "Currer Bell", by Smith, Elder & Co. of London. The first American edition was published the following year by Harper & Brothers of New York. Jane Eyre is a Bildungsroman which follows the experiences of its eponymous heroine, including her growth to adulthood and her love for Mr. Rochester, the brooding master of Thornfield Hall.
1847 (Oct 16):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Jane Eyre; (originally published as Jane Eyre: An Autobiography) is a novel by English writer Charlotte Brontë, published under the pen name "Currer Bell", by Smith, Elder & Co. of London. The first American edition was published the following year by Harper & Brothers of New York. Jane Eyre is a Bildungsroman which follows the experiences of its eponymous heroine, including her growth to adulthood and her love for Mr. Rochester, the brooding master of Thornfield Hall.
1847:[Music] Theobald Boehm (1794-1881) was a German inventor and musician best known for developing the modern flute and improved fingering system, known as the “Boehm system.” Boehm patented his new fingering system in 1847.
1847:[Food][Culture]Cigarettes are sometimes also called a fag in British slang. The first patented cigarette-making machine was invented by Juan Nepomuceno Adorno of Mexico in 1847. In the 1850s, Turkish cigarette leaves had become popular.
1847 (Sep):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 30YO Brontë's first novel, Jane Eyre gets published. It tells the story of a plain governess, Jane, who, after difficulties in her early life, falls in love with her employer, Mr Rochester. They marry, but only after Rochester's insane first wife, of whom Jane initially has no knowledge, dies in a dramatic house fire. The book's style was innovative, combining Romanticism, naturalism with gothic melodrama, and broke new ground in being written from an intensely evoked first-person female perspective.
1847:[SpaceX] 7 Iris is a large main-belt asteroid and possible remnant planetesimal orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter. It is the fourth-brightest object in the asteroid belt. 7 Iris is classified as an S-type asteroid, meaning that it has a stony composition. Wikipedia Discovered: 13 August 1847 Orbital period: 1,347 days Gravity: 0.12 m/s² Spectral type: S-type asteroid Discoverer: John Russell Hind Asteroid group: Asteroid belt Absolute magnitude: 5.51
1847:[SpaceX] 6 Hebe is a large main-belt asteroid, containing around 0.5% of the mass of the belt. However, due to its apparently high bulk density, Hebe does not rank among the top twenty asteroids by volume. Wikipedia Orbital period: 1,380 days Discovered: 1 July 1847 Discoverer: Karl Ludwig Hencke Spectral type: S-type asteroid Gravity: 0.087 m/s² Asteroid group: Asteroid belt Absolute magnitude: 5.71
1847:[History][anthro] The name of paleolithic history period 'Acheulean' derives from the French site of St. Acheul, where artifacts were first discovered in 1847.
1848:[Education][US][Public] University of Wisconsin-Madison founded.
1848: the first long-distance (500kms.) telegraph line from Berlin to Frankfurt am Main.1848: financial crisis of 1848
1848 (Apr 16): Kandukuri Veeresalingam born. (16 April 1848 – 27 May 1919) was a social reformer who first brought about a renaissance in Telugu people and Telugu literature. He was influenced by the ideals of Brahmo Samaj particularly those of Keshub Chunder Sen.
1848:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Charlotte Brontë began work on the manuscript of her second novel, Shirley. It was only partially completed when the Brontë family suffered the deaths of three of its members within eight months.
1848 (Sep):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] While 31YO Brontë working on the manuscript of her second novel, Shirley, the Brontë family suffered the deaths of three of its members within eight months. Branwell died of chronic bronchitis and marasmus, exacerbated by heavy drinking, although Brontë believed that his death was due to tuberculosis. Branwell may have had a laudanum addiction.
1848 (Dec):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 31YO Brontë's first younger sister, 30YO? Emily became seriously ill shortly after his brother Branwell's funeral and she died of pulmonary tuberculosis.
1848:[India][Culture][Extreme][Women] 17YO Ms. Savitribai Phule (1831-1897) opened India's first school for girls with Jyotirao Phule; pioneered women's education and later fought against caste discrimination.
1848:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who][Women] Savitribai Phule (January 3, 1831, Naigaon, Maharashtra - March 10, 1897, Pune, Maharashtra); 1848 (Age: 17) - Opened India's first school for girls with Jyotirao Phule; pioneered women's education and fought against caste discrimination.
1849: Deloitte
1849: A contract was signed between the East India Company and the East Indian Railway Company on 17 August 1849, entitling the latter to construct and operate an "experimental" line between Calcutta and Rajmahal, 161 km (100 miles) long at an estimated cost of £1,000,000, which would be later extended to Delhi via Mirzapur.
1849 (May):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 32YO Brontë's second younger sister, 30YO? Anne died of the same pulmonary tuberculosis. Brontë was unable to write all thru this time. After Anne's death Brontë resumed writing Shirley as a way of dealing with her grief
1849 (Oct):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 32YO Brontë's second novel, Shirley, which deals with themes of industrial unrest and the role of women in society, gets published. Unlike Jane Eyre, which is written in the first person, Shirley is written in the third person and lacks the emotional immediacy of her first novel, and reviewers found it less shocking. Brontë, as her late sister's heir, suppressed the republication of Anne's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, an action which had a deleterious effect on Anne's popularity as a novelist and has remained controversial among the sisters' biographers ever since.
1849:[SpaceX] 10 Hygiea is a large asteroid located in the outer main asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It was the tenth known asteroid, discovered on 12 April 1849 by Italian astronomer Annibale de Gasparis at the Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte in Naples, Italy. Wikipedia Mass: 8.67 × 10^19 kg Orbital period: 2,033 days Radius: 222 km Discovered: 12 April 1849 Gravity: 0.091 m/s² Discoverer: Annibale de Gasparis Spectral type: C-type asteroid1850s:[Music] A cajón is a box-shaped percussion instrument originally from Peru, played by slapping the front or rear faces with the hands, fingers, or sometimes implements such as brushes, mallets, or sticks. Cajones are primarily played in Afro-Peruvian music, but have made their way into flamenco as well.
1850s:[Politics][Corruption] Historical Context: The practice of buying votes with cash, drinks, or promises has existed throughout the history of democratic elections worldwide, with significant instances noted in 19th-century American "machine politics" (e.g., Tammany Hall) and various early 20th-century systems. (Corruption is sort of socio-political hack only)
185x:[Philosophy][Culture][Germany] Lebensreform ("life-reform") is the German generic term for various social reform movements, that started since the mid-19th century and originated especially in the German Empire and later in Switzerland. Common features were the criticism of industrialisation, materialism and urbanization combined with striving for the state of nature.
1850s:[tour][de] Painters' magnet: From the 1850s onward, Romantic painters and landscape artists discovered the stunning turquoise waters and dramatic mountain views of the Reiteralm and Hochkalter peaks.Malerklause: Local and visiting artists regularly gathered at spots like the Malerklause near the lake to paint the natural scenery. Administration: The 16.4-hectare lake is owned by the Free State of Bavaria and managed by the Bavarian Palace Administration.Tourism: Today, it is a popular destination for walking, boating, and photography, serving as a gateway to the Berchtesgaden National Park.
1850 (Sep 9): Bhartendu Harishchandra "Rasa" born at Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. He represented the agonies of the people, country's poverty, dependency, inhuman exploitation, the unrest of the middle class and the urge for the progress of the country. He was an influential Hindu "traditionalist", using Vaishnava devotionalism to define a coherent Hindu religion.
[tour][de][mntngg] A pair of grand Bavarian Alps—Reiteralm and Hochkalter—rise over this peaceful lake. Their rough slopes contrast with the smooth surface of Hintersee, a beloved lake just on the border of Berchtesgaden National Park. Artists, writers, and Alpine explorers have been drawn to Hintersee and the nearby town of Ramsau for ages, so long in fact that Ramsau has been called Germany's first mountaineering village. The peaks we see rising over Hintersee aren't even the highest in the area—Ramsau is home to the Watzmann, which is the highest mountain located entirely within Germany. And if that isn't enough camera-fodder, the village itself, with its riverside Church of St. Sebastian, is a charming scene of Bavarian splendour.
1850:[India] Historical economic texts and surveys place the population in the range of 183 to 247 million for the year 1850. Sources indicate that the population in the region of present-day India grew from approximately 169 million in 1800 to over 240 million by 1900. The estimated population of India in 1850 was between approximately 183 to 247 million people, as there was no official census prior to 1872. Other historical estimates suggest the population was around 185 million by 1800, with gradual growth throughout the 19th century.
1850:[Travel] A terrible storm swept over the Orkney Islands, and a farmer found a secret village (of Picts) near a small bay in Scotland.
1850:[Music] Antonio Torres Jurado created the first Spanish guitar; Torres Jurado based its design on the mandolin´s modification made by Gaetano Vinaccia in 1779. The instrument created by Jurado served as building blocks of the modern guitar as it is known today.
1850:[Music] Antonio Torres Jurado created the first Spanish guitar; Torres Jurado based its design on the mandolin´s modification made by Gaetano Vinaccia in 1779. The instrument created by Jurado served as building blocks of the modern guitar as it is known today.
1850:[Books][Drama][UK][Who][Art] Portrait by George Richmond (chalk on paper).
1850: American Express
1850: University of Sydney, Australia.
1850: aged 16, Dmitri Mendeleev walked almost 1600 kms to Moscow so he could apply for the Univ. of Moscow. Although he was not accepted, he walked to St. Petersberg where he was accepted, and with that education he developed the periodic table of the chemical elements.
1850: University of Sydney, Australia.
1850: aged 16, Dmitri Mendeleev walked almost 1600 kms to Moscow so he could apply for the Univ. of Moscow. Although he was not accepted, he walked to St. Petersberg where he was accepted, and with that education he developed the periodic table of the chemical elements.
1850: Homicide in California, 1850-1900 [US]
1850:[Garment] Woolrich unveils the two-tone plaid Buffalo Check shirt, which is still available today. According to the Pennsylvania-born company’s history books, the pattern designer owned a herd of buffalo.
1850:[History] The Taiping Rebellion was a major 19th-century civil war in China that lasted from 1850 to 1864. It involved a religious and political uprising against the Qing dynasty, leading to widespread devastation and an estimated 20 million deaths. The rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan, who believed himself to be the younger brother of Jesus and was sent to reform China. (True, successful war of extermination)
1850:[Culture] The development of halftone printing in the late 1800s allowed for mass production of photographic images, including those with sexual content. The first pornographic daguerreotype appeared around 1850, and with the invention of the moving picture, the first pornographic film soon followed.
1850:[SpaceX] 13 Egeria is a large main-belt G-type asteroid. It was discovered by Annibale de Gasparis on November 2, 1850. Egeria was named by Urbain Le Verrier, whose computations led to the discovery of Neptune, after the mythological nymph Egeria of Aricia, Italy, the wife of Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome. Wikipedia Orbital period: 1,510 days Discovered: 2 November 1850 Discoverer: Annibale de Gasparis Spectral type: C-type asteroid Absolute magnitude: 6.74 Asteroid group: Asteroid belt
1851:[SpaceX] 15 Eunomia is a very large asteroid in the middle asteroid belt. It is the largest of the stony asteroids, with 3 Juno as a close second. It is quite a massive asteroid, in 6th to 8th place. It is the largest Eunomian asteroid, and is estimated to contain 1% of the mass of the asteroid belt. Wikipedia Orbital period: 1,570 days Discovered: 29 July 1851 Mass: 3.12 × 10^19 kg Discoverer: Annibale de Gasparis Spectral type: S-type asteroid Gravity: 0.137 m/s² Asteroid group: Asteroid belt
1851:[Education][US][Public] University of Minnesota founded.
1851: Military Engineer Services (MES), the premier construction agency and one of the pillars of Corps of Engineers of the Indian Army was founded.1851 (Jan 29): the East Indian Railway Company took possession of its first land. Turnbull and other British engineers began detailed surveys of the line. They chose the critical crossing point on the 5,000-foot-wide (1,500 m) Son River (the largest Ganges tributary) on 17 February. The best route to Raniganj was determined in May and June. The plans for Howrah station were submitted on 16 June.
The Chief Engineer responsible for construction of the first railway line between Benares and Calcutta from 1851 to 1863 was George Turnbull who was acclaimed in the Indian Official Gazette of 7 February 1863 paragraph 5 as the "First railway engineer of India".
1851 (Jan 8):[Day] Every year, January 8 is recognized as Earth Rotation Day. Today marks the anniversary of French physicist Leon Foucault's 1851 proof that the Earth revolves on its axis.
1851:[SpaceX] 15 Eunomia is a very large asteroid in the middle asteroid belt. It is the largest of the stony asteroids, with 3 Juno as a close second. It is quite a massive asteroid, in 6th to 8th place. It is the largest Eunomian asteroid, and is estimated to contain 1% of the mass of the asteroid belt. Orbital period: 1,570 days Discovered: 29 July 1851 Mass: 3.12 × 10^19 kg Discoverer: Annibale de Gasparis Spectral type: S-type asteroid Gravity: 0.137 m/s² Asteroid group: Asteroid belt.
1852 (Dec 13):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Nicholls asked Charlotte for her hand in marriage. Charlotte's father vehemently refused to approve the union on the grounds that a poor Irish pastor should never be bold enough to suggest marrying his famous daughter.
1852:[Mntngg][India] Radhanath Sikdar (5 October 1813, Jorasanko, Kolkata; Died: 17 May 1870 (age 56 years), Gondol Para, Hooghly (WB)) was an Indian mathematician who is best known for being the first person to calculate the height of Mount Everest, in 1852. Sir, I have discovered the highest mountain in the world,” exclaimed Radhanath Sikdar as he rushed into the office of Sir Andrew Waugh, the surveyor general of India. His announcement shaped the history of Himalayan climbing. Until then, Kangchenjunga had held the top spot. But once the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, under the leadership of Sir George Everest, was completed, the mountain known as Peak XV appeared higher, at around 29,000 feet (8,839 meters). Later measurements edged the total up a bit to 29,028 feet (8,848 meters).
1852:[Writing][Art][Who] Leo Tolstoy's first published work was "Childhood" (1852), a memoir detailing his childhood experiences. It was followed by "Boyhood" and "Youth," completing a trilogy of autobiographical works. These early pieces laid the foundation for his later, more famous works like "War and Peace" and "Anna Karenina".
1852:[Military][India][Pak] Sialkot cantt (established in 1852) was the 3rd cantt in Asia.
1852:[SpaceX] 18 Melpomene is a large, bright main-belt asteroid that was discovered by J. R. Hind on 24 June 1852, and named after Melpomenē, the Muse of tragedy in Greek mythology. Its historical symbol was a dagger over a star; as of 2023 it was in the pipeline for Unicode 17.0 as U+1CECB . Wikipedia Orbital period: 1,271 days Spectral type: S-type asteroid Discoverer: John Russell Hind Discovered: 24 June 1852 Asteroid group: Asteroid belt Absolute magnitude: 6.51 Gravity: 0.0393 m/s²
1852:[SpaceX] 19 Fortuna is one of the largest main-belt asteroids. It has a composition similar to 1 Ceres: a darkly colored surface that is heavily space-weathered with the composition of primitive organic compounds, including tholins. Wikipedia Spectral type: C-type asteroid Orbital period: 1,394 days Discovered: 22 August 1852 Discoverer: John Russell Hind Asteroid group: Asteroid belt Discovery site: George Bishop's Observatory, George Bishop's Observatory, Regent's Park
1853:[Education][US][Public] University of Florida founded.
1853: Charter Act of 1853.
1853:[Business][Polity][mgmt] Bharat Chamber of Commerce has come a long way since its formation in 1853 in Kolkata, India. It is the only such institution in India being the oldest, largest and leading Chambers of Commerce. Rendering dedicated services and providing inspiration for economic and commercial growth of its constituents, the Chamber covers an entire spectrum of industrial activities from mining to iron and steel, agro-processing, textiles, jute and tea, Information Technology and Communication, Infrastructure and Real Estate Development.
1853: The first railway line between Bombay to Thane (32 km stretch) was opened. It had 14 coaches and was driven by 3 engines The 541 miles (871 kilometres) of line from Howrah to Benares were opened.1853(Apr 16): A train with 14 railway carriages and 400 guests left Bombay's Bori Bunder for Thane, with a 21-gun salute. It was hauled by three locomotives: Sindh, Sultan, and Sahib. The journey took an hour and fifteen minutes. This is the first commercial passenger train in India.
1853: Thomason College of Civil Engineering established in British India by the then lieutenant governor, Sir James Thomason, Today, it is commonly known as IIT Roorkee, formerly the University of Roorkee (1948-2001).
1853:[Who] As we traverse the intriguing journey of Indian industries, we encounter the name that is often regarded as the 'Father of Indian Industry' - Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata. Born on 3rd March 1839 in Navsari, Gujarat, Jamsetji Tata began his journey into the world of business at the tender age of 14, assisting his father.
1853: Jamsedji Nusserwanji Tata joined his father in Mumbai at the age of 14 and enrolled at the Elphinstone College completing his education as a 'Green Scholar' (equivalent of a graduate). He was married to Hirabai Daboo while he was still a student. He graduated from college in 1858 and joined his father's trading firm. JN Tata made many trips abroad, mainly to England, America, Europe, China, and Japan to establish branches for his father's business.
1853:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Nicholls announced his intention to leave for Australia as a missionary, but he later changed his mind despite collecting references (including one from Patrick Brontë) and a farewell gift from the parishioners. He was re-deployed for several months to another parish, but he had several secret meetings with Charlotte in Haworth.
1853:[FnB] Potato chips were likely invented in Saratoga Springs, New York, around 1853 by George Crum, a chef at Moon's Lake House restaurant. The story goes that a customer repeatedly sent back his fried potatoes, complaining they were too thick. In response, Crum sliced potatoes exceptionally thin, fried them, and the result was a crispy, popular dish that became known as Saratoga chips. 1854:[Economics][Research] Hermann Heinrich Gossen published Entwickelung der Gesetze des menschlichen Verkehrs, which formulated the law of diminishing marginal utility (Gossen's First Law) and the law of equi-marginal utility (Gossen's Second Law). The principle that as an individual consumes more units of a good, the satisfaction derived from each additional unit decreases.
1854: Macaulay Committee gave India its first modern civil service in 1854 which recommended that the patronage based system of the East India Company should be replaced by permanent civil service based on merit based system through competitive entry examinations. (then known by Indian Civil Service (ICS)).
1854: the Post Office Act of 1854 reformed the entire fabric of the Indian postal system. The first postage stamp, valid throughout India, was issued. It was fixed by weight and not by distance.1854 (Jan):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Before Brontë's 37th birthday, She accepted long-awaited proposal of marriage from Irishman Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father's curate, who had long been in love with her.
1854 (Feb):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Little by little Charlotte became persuaded by Nicholls, and her father finally gave his permission for the visits.
1854 (Apr):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë's father approved their marriage perhaps as a gift of her 37th b'day.
1854 (Jun 29):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë and Nicholls get married in her father's church at Haworth. 37YO Brontë's father Patrick had intended to give her away, but at the last minute decided he could not, and Brontë had to make her way to the church without him. so Charlotte was led to the altar by Margaret Wooler, her former schoolmistress at Roe Head School. They honeymooned in Wales and Ireland before returning to live with Charlotte's father at Haworth Parsonage.
1854 (Jul):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] The married couple took their honeymoon in Banagher, County Offaly, Ireland. By all accounts, her marriage was a success and Brontë found herself very happy in a way that was new to her. The two servants at the parsonage in Haworth, Tabitha Aykroyd and Martha Brown, believed that Charlotte and Arthur were happy together. During her honeymoon Charlotte wrote to Ellen Nussey: I think those married women who indiscriminatingly urge their acquaintance to marry – much to blame. For my part – I can only say with deeper sincerity and fuller significance – what I have always said in theory – Wait God's will. Indeed – indeed Nell – it is a strange and solemn and perilous thing for a woman to become a wife. Man's lot is far – far different.
1854 (Sep?):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] 38YO Brontë became pregnant soon after her wedding, but her health declined rapidly and, according to Gaskell, she was attacked by "sensations of perpetual nausea and ever-recurring faintness".
1854 (Dec 26):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Charlotte wrote to Ellen Nussey about her husband Arthur "is certainly my dear boy, and he is dearer to me today than he was six months ago".
1854:[SpaceX] 29 Amphitrite is one of the largest S-type asteroids, approximately 200 kilometers in diameter, and probably fifth largest after Eunomia, Juno, Iris and Herculina. Wikipedia Orbital period: 1,491 days Discovered: 1 March 1854 Spectral type: S-type asteroid Discoverer: Albert Marth Asteroid group: Asteroid belt Gravity: 0.0593 m/s² Absolute magnitude: 5.85
1854:[SpaceX] 31 Euphrosyne is one of the largest asteroids. It was discovered by James Ferguson on September 1, 1854, the first asteroid found from North America. It is named after Euphrosyne, one of the Charites in Greek mythology. In 2019 a small companion was discovered. Wikipedia Discovered: 1 September 1854 Radius: 133.54 km Orbital period: 2,052 days Discoverer: James Ferguson Spectral type: C-type asteroid Asteroid group: Asteroid belt Asteroid family: Asteroid belt
1854:[silvics] A separate organisation operates in Scotland, the Royal Scottish Forestry Society, which was established in 1854.
1855:[Research]The foundation of all practical color processes, the three-color method was first suggested in an 1855 paper by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, with the first color photograph produced by Thomas Sutton for a Maxwell lecture in 1861.
1855:[Books] Fra Lippo Lippi is an 1855 dramatic monologue written by the Victorian poet Robert Browning which first appeared in his collection Men and Women. Throughout this poem, Browning depicts a 15th-century real-life painter, Filippo Lippi. The poem asks the question whether art should be true to life or an idealized image of life. The poem is written in blank verse, non-rhyming iambic pentameter.
1855 (Mar 31):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Brontë died, with her unborn child, three weeks before her 39th birthday. Her death certificate gives the cause of death as phthisis, but biographers including Claire Harman and others suggest that she died from dehydration and malnourishment due to vomiting caused by severe morning sickness or hyperemesis gravidarum.
1855 (Dec):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Following Charlotte's sudden death, Nicholls became the copyright holder of her works, making him an occasionally defensive and reluctant curator of her memory until the early twentieth century. Brontë was buried in the family vault in the Church of St Michael and All Angels at Haworth.
1855:[Technology] The Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway (reporting mark BB&CI) was a company incorporated in 1855 to undertake the task of constructing railway lines between Bombay to the erstwhile Baroda State, that became the present-day Baroda (Vadodara) city in western India. BB&CI completed the work in 1864. The first suburban railway in India was started by BB&CI, operating between Virar and Bombay Backbay station (later extended to Colaba), a railway station in Bombay Backbay in April 1867. (ref: movie Guru, Dhirubhai Ambani was born in 1932: The rly was ~80-90 yr old the time he boarded it for Bombay)
1856:[Education][US][Public] Auburn University founded.
1856: the concept of Children's Day was first introduced by the Dr. Charles Leonard, a pastor at Church of the Redeemer, Chelsea, Massachusetts (USA). (The church got destroyed in the great chelsea fire of 1908). 2nd Sunday of June chosen as the date.1856: Western Union founded.
1856 (May 12): The historic success of the 8 hours a day/40 hrs a week campaign (started on 21 April 1856, by a group of stonemasons) celebrated with a grand march from Carlton Gardens to Cremorne Gardens in Richmond, followed by dinner, speeches, games, festivities and fireworks.
1856 (Jul 10): Nikola Tesla was born at Smiljan, Austrian Empire (modern-day Croatia).
1856: A.A. Markov was born.
1856: A College of Engineering was started by the name of Civil Engineering College on 24th November, 1856, in the premises of the Writers Building, Calcutta.
1856: fall of the Nawab of Awadh started.
1856:[Mntngg][India] Nain Singh Rawat (21 October 1830 – 1 February 1882), was one of the first Indian explorers (dubbed "pundits") employed by the British to explore the Himalayas and Central Asia. He came from the Johar Valley in Kumaon. He surveyed the trade route through Ladakh to Tibet, determined the location and altitude of Lhasa in Tibet, and surveyed a large section of Brahmaputra. His reports were initially made under the code name Number 9. He walked "1,580 miles, or 3,160,000 paces, each counted."
1856:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who] Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (September 26, 1820, Birsingha, Bengal Presidency - July 29, 1891, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency); 1856 (Age: 35-36) - Key figure in the passing of the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act; extensive work in education reform.
1856:[SpaceX] 41 Daphne is a large asteroid from the asteroid belt. It is a dark-surfaced body 174 km in diameter is probably composed of primitive carbonaceous chondrites. The spectra of the asteroid displays evidence of aqueous alteration. Wikipedia Moon: S/2008 (41) 1 Orbital period: 1,676 days Discoverer: Hermann Goldschmidt Spectral type: C-type asteroid Discovered: 22 May 1856 Absolute magnitude: 7.61 Asteroid group: Asteroid belt.
1856:[mntngg] The popular account of the excited Bengali genius rushing into Waugh's office exclaiming that he had 'discovered the world's highest mountain' IS UNTRUE as office of computation department of The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India was in Kolkata and Waugh's office was in Dehradun. But Sickdhar's computations were the conclusive proof of peak XV's superiority. Waugh took another 4 years to declare this finding to the world as survey of Karakoram was ongoing then and K2 seemed promising to chief surveyor captain Montgomerie. Waugh suggested 'Mont [sic] Everest' as the name 1st, and then 'Mount Everest'. Brian Hodgson, a prominent Buddhist scholar, suggested 'Devadhanga' but Waugh objected. In early twentieth century the great Swedish explorer Sven Hedin had come up with a Tibetan name 'Cha-mo-lung-ma' was also, like Devadhanga, rejected on the grounds that it was applicable to the whole Everest region rather than to a particular peak. Still longer Tibetan names like 'Mi-thik Dgu-thik Bya-phur Long-nga' (means 'You cannot see the summit from near it, but you can see the summit from nine directions, and a bird which flies as high as the summit goes blind') were also rejected. However the name Everest was pronounced not 'Ever-rest' (like 'cleverest') but 'Eve-rest' (like 'cleave-rest'). So, ultimately it is the wrong name or pronunciation, which prevailed.
1857 (Jan 24): establishment of Calcutta University. It is the first institution in S.Asia to be estd. as a multidisciplinary and secular Western style university.
1857 (May 10): Indian Rebellion of 1857 started in Meerut.
1857:[Business][Polity][mgmt] On 30 November 1857, as a result of the Indian Mutiny, the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry appealed to the Government of India to send "a force of Europeans, either sailors or soldiers" to defend Akyab, as it considered the Arracan Battalion not to give enough protection. It was concerned about "the safety of the inhabitants and the security of the public treasury". The Secretary to the Government replied on 2 December, regretting that "there is no European force available at present."
1857:The oldest football club in the world is Sheffield Football Club (Sheffield FC), founded in October 1857. FIFA and The Football Association recognize Sheffield FC as the oldest existing independent club still playing football.
1857: Admin. and legislative reforms in Charter Acts.
1857: Phonautograph creating visual images [Analog Music]
1857: Phonautograph creating visual images [Analog Music]
1857:[India][FnB] After the Indian Mutiny of 1857, the khansamas (chefs, around 70-80) from erstwhile Mughal imperial courts shifted to Rampur, bringing along with them the Mughal cuisine tradition. Gradually people from other places also found a haven here, adding influences of Awadhi, Hyderabad and Kashmiri cuisine. It is also known for its distinct flavours and dishes with recipes passed on from the royal kitchen, like Rampuri fish, Rampuri Korma, Rampuri mutton kebabs, Doodhiya Biryani and adrak ka halwa. Gold coin tadka and chandi ka warq. Each rice grain carved as lotus flower. Korma, kebab and salan. They had unique spices and marination techniques. Rampuri chefs were sent to France to learn European food. Art, music and food still carries on in Rampur royal family. Mutton Ishtew, Raan kebab, Fish mussalam, Safed maash ki daal, In sweets its Raswal (sugarcane juice) and obviously Sewaiyan. Gulazi (a buttery kheer)
1857:[Books] "The Defence of Lucknow" is a narrative poem by Alfred Lord Tennyson, which was published in 1857. It is a stirring account of the heroic defence of Lucknow during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which British forces and civilians held out against a siege by Indian rebels for over four months. The poem is divided into twelve cantos, each of which describes a different aspect of the siege and the bravery of the defenders. Tennyson describes the suffering and sacrifice of the British soldiers and civilians, as well as the cunning tactics and fierce resistance of the Indian rebels.
1857:[Books] "The Defence of Lucknow" is a narrative poem by Alfred Lord Tennyson, which was published in 1857. It is a stirring account of the heroic defence of Lucknow during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which British forces and civilians held out against a siege by Indian rebels for over four months. The poem is divided into twelve cantos, each of which describes a different aspect of the siege and the bravery of the defenders. Tennyson describes the suffering and sacrifice of the British soldiers and civilians, as well as the cunning tactics and fierce resistance of the Indian rebels.
1857: Badli-ki-Sarai , where a battle was fought in 1857, is gone and only part of the gatewaysurvives on the Delhi-Karnal Road. It is a historical site located near Badli, in Delhi. It isprimarily known for its significance during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which marked acrucial turning point in India’s struggle against British colonial rule.(Stephen, 1876) (Hotel)
1857:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Elizabeth Gaskell's biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë was published.
1857:[Mntngg] The Alpine Club was founded in London on 22 December 1857 and is the world's first mountaineering club. The primary focus of the club is to support mountaineers who climb in the Alps and the Greater Ranges of the world's mountains.
1857:End of the Mughal Era in India. Several states in India were never under the rule of the Mughal Empire. These include Goa, which was under Portuguese rule, and various northeastern states like Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, and Tripura, due to factors like strong tribal resistance, rugged terrain, and independent kingdoms. Additionally, Kerala was not invaded by the Mughals.
1857:[SpaceX] 48 Doris is one of the largest main belt asteroids. It was discovered on 19 September 1857 by Hermann Goldschmidt from his balcony in Paris. To find a name for the object, Jacques Babinet of the Academy of Sciences created a shortlist and asked the geologist Élie de Beaumont to make the selection. Wikipedia Orbital period: 2,003 days Discovered: 19 September 1857 Discoverer: Hermann Goldschmidt Spectral type: C-type asteroid Asteroid family: Asteroid belt Absolute magnitude: 7.14 Asteroid group: Asteroid belt
1857:[SpaceX] 49 Pales is a large, dark main-belt asteroid. It was discovered by German-French astronomer Hermann Goldschmidt on 19 September 1857 from his balcony in Paris. The asteroid is named after Pales, the goddess of shepherds in Roman mythology.
1857:[SpaceX] 56 Melete is a large and dark main belt asteroid. It is a rather unusual P-type asteroid, probably composed of organic rich silicates, carbon and anhydrous silicates, with possible internal water ice. The asteroid orbits the Sun with a period of 4.18 years.
1857: Begum ki Sarai, located in Begumpur, Delhi, is a historical Sarai (resting place) with rootslikely tracing back to the Mughal period. Begumpur itself is known for its historicalconnections, including the Begumpur Masjid, a prominent mosque from the Tughlaq era. TheSarai adds to the area's legacy as a significant part of Delhi's medieval infrastructure. The name"Begum ki Sarai" suggests that it might have been commissioned by a noblewoman or aBegum, which was a title used for royal or high-status women in Mughal India.Begumpur Masjid one of the largest mosques built during the Tughlaq period, this site reflectsthe historical significance of Begumpur as a hub of activity. Begumpur's heritage sites,including the Sarai, showcase Delhi's layered history spanning the Sultanate and Mughal periods. (hotel)
1857: Daud ki Sarai, located near the Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb in Mehrauli, Delhi, is anotherintriguing historical Sarai (resting place) with roots in Delhi's rich medieval past. It is part ofthe larger Mehrauli Archaeological Park, a site brimming with remnants of the city's Sultanateand Mughal heritage.The Sarai is believed to have been named after Daud, who may have been a local noble, abenefactor, or an influential figure responsible for its construction or upkeep.Like other Sarais,Daud ki Sarai would have been integral to supporting travelers, traders, and pilgrims visitingDelhi or passing through it on their journeys.The Sarai’s location near the famous Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb indicates its strategicplacement. This area was an important cultural and spiritual hub during the Delhi Sultanateand early Mughal periods.
1857: Jia Sarai in Hauz Khas village was better known as "Phuta Gumbad" or ruined dome. A Saraibeing attached to a mosque was not uncommon and many of the caravan Sarais of Delhi werepart of old masjids. Jia Sarai is a neighborhood in South Delhi, India, located near the IndianInstitute of Technology (IIT) Delhi. It is a small urban village known for its bustling studentcommunity, primarily due to its proximity to IIT Delhi and coaching centers preparing studentsfor competitive exams like the UPSC, GATE, and JEE.The area is filled with affordable accommodations, such as paying guest facilities and hostels,catering to students and young professionals. Numerous coaching centers for competitiveexams are located here, making it a popular destination for aspirants across India. Jia Saraioffers relatively low-cost living options, including food, accommodation, and stationery, ideal for students on a budget. It is well-connected via Delhi Metro, with the Hauz Khas Metro station, and other public transport, making commuting convinient
1857: Kalu Sarai is a historic and bustling neighborhood located in South Delhi, India. Known for itsproximity to prestigious educational institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), it has evolved into a hub for students and youngprofessionals. The area features a blend of old-world charm with narrow lanes and traditionalhouses alongside modern developments. Historically, Kalu Sarai was one of the many villagesin Delhi that witnessed urban transformation, and remnants of its rural past can still beobserved. The locality is well-connected to other parts of Delhi via the Delhi Metro and majorroads, making it a convenient residential area. Its vibrant mix of residential complexes,eateries, and coaching centers cater to a diverse population, making it a dynamic and livelypart of the city.(Liddle, n.d.)
1857: Katwaria Sarai is a prominent locality in South Delhi, India, known for its vibrant student-centric atmosphere. Nestled near educational hubs like the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), it has become a favored residential area forstudents and young professionals. The neighborhood is characterized by affordable housingoptions, coaching centers, and a lively urban culture. Despite modern developments, KatwariaSarai retains a touch of its traditional village roots, visible in its narrow lanes and community-centric lifestyle. Its strategic location, with excellent connectivity via the Delhi Metro andmajor roadways, makes it a convenient choice for those seeking a balance betweenaccessibility and affordability in the bustling city.
1857: Ladhap Sarai owed its origin to the daughters of Mirza Suraiya Jah. It was built on the westernedge of the garden laid by Afzun Nazir Khwajasarai, the celebrated eunuch of the time ofMohammad Shah Rangila (1719-1748CE). Lado Sarai was erected on the pattern of the Persian Sarais but now the village of that name exists there. Lado may have been a Pathan beauty, forpart of the wall that survives is of the Pathan period.Lado Sarai is a vibrant and historic locality in South Delhi, blending modern urban life withtraces of its heritage. Known as one of Delhi's ancient villages, it has evolved into a bustlingneighborhood with a mix of contemporary art galleries, trendy cafes, and commercialestablishments.Lado Sarai is particularly renowned as a hub for Delhi’s art community, with numerousgalleries showcasing modern and contemporary works. Situated near landmarks like QutubMinar and Mehrauli Archaeological Park, the area also offers a rich cultural backdrop. Despite its urban transformation, Lado Sarai retains elements of its traditional village charm, creatinga unique juxtaposition of old and new. Its strategic location and connectivity via major roadsand metro lines make it a popular choice for artists, professionals, and residents alike.
1857: Neb Sarai, located in South Delhi, is a rapidly developing neighborhood that blends urbanconvenience with a touch of rustic charm. Close to the green expanse of the Asola BhattiWildlife Sanctuary, the area offers a unique mix of natural beauty and metropolitan living.Known for its affordable housing options, it attracts students, working professionals, andfamilies seeking proximity to key areas like Saket, Chhatarpur, and Gurgaon. Over the years,Neb Sarai has seen significant growth in infrastructure, with improved connectivity throughmetro stations like Saket and Chhatarpur and access to major roads. The locality also boasts mix of local markets, small eateries, and schools, making it a practical and lively choice forresidents.
1857: Nizamuddin Sarai Situated near the shrine of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, this Sarai was frequented by pilgrimsand merchants. The proximity to the Sufi saint’s dargah added spiritual significance, attractingdiverse visitors.Nizamuddin Sarai, located in South Delhi, is a historically significant and vibrantneighborhood renowned for its cultural and spiritual heritage. It lies in proximity to the famousHazrat Nizamuddin Dargah, a revered Sufi shrine that draws devotees and tourists alike. Thearea also houses key landmarks like Humayun’s Tomb, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,adding to its historical significance. With its mix of narrow, bustling streets, traditionalmarkets, and old-world architecture, Nizamuddin Sarai offers a glimpse into Delhi’s rich past.Despite its historical roots, the locality is well-connected through major roads and the HazratNizamuddin railway station, making it a vital transit hub in the.
1857:[Tourism][Malaysia] Kuala Lumpur was founded as a trading post and tin-mining camp at the confluence of the Klang and Gombak rivers by Chinese miners sent by Malay leader Raja Abdullah. The name Kuala Lumpur literally translates to "muddy confluence" in the Malay language. Nested in a valley surrounded by deep rainforest, Kuala Lumpur's dense cityscape only sprang up in the last century or so. Situated at the meeting of two rivers and visited frequently by prodigious rainfall, this place often lives up its name, which translates from Malay to 'muddy confluence.' Early photographs of the location, dating to the late 1800s, reveal a modest town of thatched attap dwellings, alongside a handful of British colonial buildings in Mughal and Moorish-influenced styles. Since Malaysia gained independence in 1957, however, the capital has earned fame for the high-rising stars of this sparkling shot: its skyscrapers, which number in the hundreds and include supertall landmarks like the Petronas Towers and Merdeka 118.
1857:[mktg][FnB] Neighborhood Expansion: Until 1857 and the early 20th century, surrounding areas like Pahari Dhiraj functioned separately before merging directly into the expanding commercial footprint of Sadar Bazar. Wholesale Hub: Today, it operates as a massive cluster of specialized sub-markets—such as Swadeshi Market, Pratap Market, and Rui Mandi—supplying toys, household goods, stationery, and artificial jewelry across the country.
1858: Ferdinand de Lesseps, a French diplomat formed the Suez Canal Company for the express purpose of building the canal. Construction of the canal lasted from 1859 to 1869. The canal officially opened on 17 November 1869. Enabling trade of Oil, Coffee, Furniture, Cars and Livestock between Asia and Europe. $10B moves thru Suez canal every day in Mar 2021.
1858 an American-led consortium laid the first cable connecting Britain and the United States, which eventually failed in few months. Practiced for 7 yrs. and failed again in an attempt to lay a cable.
The first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by businessman Cyrus West Field, it operated for only three weeks.
1858 (Jun 18): Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi died aged 29.
1858 (Aug 2): Government Of India Act 2, 1858.
1858: East India Company cease to exist. The British Raj started. It was the rule of the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India.
1858: Calcutta was made capital of India.
1858: Victoria became the Queen of UK for 43 yrs; Charles Canning became the Viceroy and Governor-General of India; Edward Stanley became the Secretary of State.
1858: Minto Park, officially Madan Mohan Malaviya Park, is a park in Allahabad, India.
It is located in the southern part of the city along the banks of Yamuna river. The park is a historical site for in 1858 Earl Canning read out the declaration of Queen Victoria's
1858 an American-led consortium laid the first cable connecting Britain and the United States, which eventually failed in few months. Practiced for 7 yrs. and failed again in an attempt to lay a cable.
The first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by businessman Cyrus West Field, it operated for only three weeks.
1858 (Jun 18): Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi died aged 29.
1858 (Aug 2): Government Of India Act 2, 1858.
1858: East India Company cease to exist. The British Raj started. It was the rule of the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India.
1858: Calcutta was made capital of India.
1858: Victoria became the Queen of UK for 43 yrs; Charles Canning became the Viceroy and Governor-General of India; Edward Stanley became the Secretary of State.
1858: Minto Park, officially Madan Mohan Malaviya Park, is a park in Allahabad, India.
It is located in the southern part of the city along the banks of Yamuna river. The park is a historical site for in 1858 Earl Canning read out the declaration of Queen Victoria's
Proclamation which resulted in the complete transfer of control over India
from The East India Company to the government of Britain. The park is named after Earl of Minto
who, in 1910, laid a stone memorial with a four-lion symbol on the park.
1858:[Biology][Food] The word "fungus" comes from the Latin word "mushroom." Fungi were found by Heinrich Anton de Bary in 1858. Fungi is a genus of heterotrophic, mostly multicellular eukaryotic creatures (cannot make their food). They could be filamentous or unicellular.
1858:[SpaceX] 54 Alexandra is a carbonaceous asteroid from the intermediate asteroid belt, approximately 155 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered by German-French astronomer Hermann Goldschmidt on 10 September 1858, and named after the German explorer Alexander von Humboldt; it was the first asteroid to be named after a male. Wikipedia Discovery date: 10 September 1858 Minor planet category: Main belt Named after: Alexander von Humboldt; (German explorer)
1859:[Technology] The (rechargeable) lead–acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first invented by French physicist Gaston Planté. It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern rechargeable batteries, lead–acid batteries have relatively low energy density. Despite this, they are able to supply high surge currents. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by starter motors. Lead-acid batteries suffer from relatively short cycle lifespan (usually less than 500 deep cycles) and overall lifespan (due to the "double sulfation" in the discharged state), as well as slow or long charging time. It uses The naturally occurring mineral anglesite, PbSO4, which occurs as an oxidation product of primary lead sulfide ore.
1859 (Jul 8): Indian Rebellion of 1857 halted after 2 years. Britishers won over Indian Princes
1859 (Jul 8): Indian Rebellion of 1857 halted after 2 years. Britishers won over Indian Princes
1859:[Economics] 42-gallon Barrel: Soon after America's first commercial oil well of 1859, a small group met in northwestern Pennsylvania and decided a 42-gallon barrel was best for transporting their oil. When filled with oil instead of fish or other commodities, a 42-gallon “tierce” weighed 300 pounds. 42-gallon Barrel is equiv to 191L.
1859:[Book] Adam Bede was the first novel by Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot), and was published in 1859. It was published pseudonymously, even though Evans was a well-published and highly respected scholar of her time. The novel has remained in print ever since and is regularly used in university studies of 19th-century English literature. She described the novel as, “A country story full of the breath of cows and scent of hay”.
1859:[Art] 'Heart of the Andes' by Frederic Edwin Church is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. It's sprawling 5-foot-high and nearly 10-foot-wide canvas having instances of views seen in Church's travels around South America. After several years of public exhibition, it was sold for $10,000, an huge sum at the time and the highest price paid for any work by a living American artist.
1859:[India][UK][Medicine][Military] Young Swiss businessman, Jean Henry Dunant was appalled by the condition of the wounded soldiers he happened to see in the battle field of Solferino , Italy in 1859 during the Franco - Austrian war. He arranged relief services with the help of the local community immediately. He wrote the book 'Memory of Solferino' suggesting that a neutral organization be established to aid the wounded soldiers in times of war. Just a year after the release of this book, an international conference was convened in Geneva to consider the suggestions of Henry Dunant and thus the Red Cross Movement was born. International Red Cross Movement was established by Geneva Convention of 1864. The name and the emblem of the movement are derived from the reversal of the Swiss national flag, to honor the country in which Red Cross was found.
1859:[Chemistry] Propylene glycol (PG) was described by Wurtz in 1859, and it was first considered for use in pharmaceutical preparations in 1932. It was proposed to replace ethylene glycol as a solvent and vehicle for a bismuth product used in the treatment of syphilis. (safe preservative)
1859:[Ety] A pub is a bar or tavern that serves food and often acts as a community gathering place. People visit pubs to eat lunch, to drink beer, or to play darts with their friends. Pub is a shortened form of public house that dates from 1859.
1859:[GeoPolitics] the Suez Canal’s actual history starts with the First Concession; and the other concessions that followed all the way to the digging which started on April 25th, 1859 in the city of “Al-Farama” (now Port Said) where 20 thousand Egyptians participated in the groundbreaking event under the harshest of conditions.
1860: Prof. Antonio Pacinotti, an Italian physics professor, solved the problems of early design of Pixxii's dynamo i.e. the electric current it produced consisted of a series of "spikes" or pulses of current separated by none at all, resulting in a low average power output.
1860: Societies Registration Act of 1860 in India.
1860: Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860.
1860:[Travel][India][RJ] Jhalana Safari Park is an expansive and beautiful safari park in Jaipur that’s popular for its leopard sightings. The forest block has an area of 1978 hectare and is situated on south eastern border of Jaipur city. Until 1860, the park was under Feudalistic rule. It was the exclusive property of the erstwhile Jaipur estate and was basically used by the royals to play sports, and to meet the fuel and fodder needs of neighbouring villages. In 1862, Dr Brandis was appointed as the Inspector General of the forest to supervise the administration of the forest under a systematic management.
1860 (Dec 1):[Books] Great Expectations is the thirteenth novel by Charles Dickens and his penultimate completed novel. It depicts the education of an orphan nicknamed Pip (the book is a Bildungsroman, a coming-of-age story). It is Dickens' second novel, after David Copperfield, to be fully narrated in the first person. The novel was first published as a serial in Dickens's weekly periodical All the Year Round, from 1 December 1860 to August 1861.
1860 (Dec 1):[Books] Great Expectations is the thirteenth novel by Charles Dickens and his penultimate completed novel. It depicts the education of an orphan nicknamed Pip (the book is a Bildungsroman, a coming-of-age story). It is Dickens' second novel, after David Copperfield, to be fully narrated in the first person. The novel was first published as a serial in Dickens's weekly periodical All the Year Round, from 1 December 1860 to August 1861.
1860s:Another notable early hotel, Watson's Hotel (now Esplanade Mansion), was also built in the late 1860s in Mumbai.
1861: American Civil War - At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, 1861, Confederate troops fired on Fort Sumter in South Carolina's Charleston Harbor. Less than 34 hours later, Union forces surrendered. Traditionally, this event has been used to mark the beginning of the Civil War.
1861:[Education][US] Commonwealth of Massachusetts incorporated MIT on April 10, 1861 with motto Mens et manus (Mind and Hand). Today it has faculty strength of 2,000 and student strength of 15,000.
1861: Indian Councils Act, 1861.
1861 (Jun):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Nicholls continued living at Haworth Parsonage as Patrick's assistant until Patrick's death and although he was expected to succeed him as the incumbent minister the church trustees voted against him and he resigned.
1861 (Aug): Last weekly serial (35/36/37th serial) of Great Expectations by Charles Dickens.
1861 (Oct):[Books] Chapman & Hall published the novel, Great Expectations by Charles Dickens in three volumes.
1861 (Oct):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] He put the contents of Haworth Parsonage up for auction, retaining the family's manuscripts and private effects and distributing keepsakes to the family's servants, and moved back to Banagher in County Offaly, to live with his widowed aunt and her daughter, Mary Anna Bell (1830-1915)
1861:[SpaceX] 70 Panopaea is a large main belt asteroid. Its orbit is close to those of the Eunomia asteroid family; however, Panopaea is a dark, primitive carbonaceous C-type asteroid in contrast to the S-type asteroids of the Eunomian asteroids. The spectra of the asteroid displays evidence of aqueous alteration. Wikipedia Asteroid family: Asteroid belt Spectral type: C-type asteroid Discovered: 5 May 1861 Discoverer: Hermann Goldschmidt Discovery site: Paris Observatory Orbital period: 1,545 days Orbits: Sun
1861:[crime] In America, the wartime conditions caused a surge in fake notes, famously including Samuel Upham’s production of replica Confederate currency. Samuel Curtis Upham produced and sold over 1.5 million replica Confederate notes with a face value of roughly $15 million from his Philadelphia shop between 1862 and 1863.
1862:[Education][UK][Public] University of Southampton founded.
1862: The first coast-to-coast telegraph line was opened.1862: High courts of India - High Courts set-up in 3 megacities of India, viz. Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai on Jul 2, Aug 14 and Aug 15 resp.
1862:[Books] Goblin Market (composed in April 1859 and published in 1862) is a narrative poem by Christina Rossetti. It tells the story of Laura and Lizzie who are tempted with fruit by goblin merchants. In a letter to her publisher, Rossetti claimed that the poem, which is interpreted frequently as having features of remarkably sexual imagery, was not meant for children. However, in public Rossetti often stated that it was intended for children, and went on to write many children's poems. When it appeared in her first volume of poetry, Goblin Market and Other Poems, it was illustrated by her brother, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
1862:[space] Because Sirius is so bright, it was well-known to the ancients. However the discovery of a companion star, Sirius B, in 1862 surprised astronomers. The star that you can see with the naked eye is called Sirius A, or sometimes just Sirius.
1862:[FnB] The whiskey sour is a very old drink. First written down in 1862 in The Bartender's Guide by Jerry Thomas. It was, however, known for a century before this. When sailors ventured overseas, they struggled with malnutrition and scurvy and germs and whatnot.
1863 (Jan 12): Swami Vivekananda born into an aristocratic Bengali family of Calcutta. beginning of National Youth Day.
1863: Shiv Narain Birla s/o Seth Shobharam of Pilani moved to Bombay.
1862:[crime][gov] Industrialization and Underground Networks (1800s) - 1862: To fund the American Civil War, the U.S. government passes the Internal Revenue Act, imposing high taxes on spirits. The Bureau of Internal Revenue is created to hunt down "wildcat" (unlicensed) distillers.
1862 (Feb):[crime] Samuel Upham noticed high sales for a Philadelphia Inquirer issue featuring a printed Confederate $5 bill on the front page. He bought the electrotype plate, printed 3,000 copies, and sold them as novelty "mementos of the rebellion" for one cent each. Each bill featured a bottom caption reading “Fac-simile Confederate Note,” which users easily trimmed off with scissors to pass the notes into real circulation. Upham eventually offered 28 variations of Southern currency and postage stamps, upgrading from letter stock to high-quality banknote paper. Modern estimates suggest his replica notes comprised up to nearly 3% of the total Confederate money supply, worsening wartime inflation. The Confederate government placed a hefty $10,000 bounty on Upham’s head and labeled him a "Yankee scoundrel". The U.S. Treasury and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton investigated Upham but dismissed the case. Because the United States did not legally recognize the Confederacy as a sovereign nation, counterfeiting its currency violated no U.S. laws.
1863:[Education][US][Public] Kansas State University founded.
1863 (Jan 9): world's first underground train at London. 5.5kms from Paddington to Farrington.1863 (Jan 12): Swami Vivekananda born into an aristocratic Bengali family of Calcutta. beginning of National Youth Day.
1863: Shiv Narain Birla s/o Seth Shobharam of Pilani moved to Bombay.
1863:[Art] French modernist painter Édouard Manet painted Le déjeuner sur l'herbe, a large oil on canvas painting created in 1862 and 1863. It depicts a female nude and a scantily dressed female bather on a picnic with two fully dressed men in a rural setting. [Most Famous Realism Artists]
1863:[Day] The birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda also called Swami Vivekananda Jayanti is celebrated every year on 12 January. He was born on 12 January 1863. The government had decided to observe it as Rashtriya Yuva Diwas because the philosophy of Swamiji and the ideals for which he lived and worked could be a great source of inspiration for the Indian Youth. He had given a speech at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago and glorified India's name.
1863:[History]: Historic map of Delhi (Shahjahanabad), in 1863, showing it as Oriental College It was initially founded by Ghaziuddin Khan, a general of Mughal
1863:[Books][Art][Cinema] Konstantin Sergeyevich Stanislavski (Russian: Константин Сергеевич Станиславский, IPA: [kənstɐnʲˈtʲin sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪtɕ stənʲɪˈslafskʲɪj]; né Alekseyev; 17 January [O.S. 5 January] 1863 – 7 August 1938) was a seminal Russian and Soviet theatre practitioner. He was widely recognized as an outstanding character actor, and the many productions that he directed garnered him a reputation as one of the leading theatre directors of his generation. His principal fame and influence, however, rests on his "system" of actor training, preparation, and rehearsal technique.
1864:[Research][Space] On April 9, 1864, French chemist Louis Pasteur reported his experiment disproving spontaneous generation as it was then held to occur. In the 1870s, British physicist William Thomson and German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz reinforced Pasteur and argued that life could come from space. In the first decade of the twentieth century, Swedish chemist and Nobel laureate Svante Arrhenius theorized that bacterial spores, propelled through space by light pressure, were the seeds of life on Earth.
1864: The first-degree examination in Bachelors of Civil Engineering was held in 1864 in which only 2 students graduated. In 1865, the college merged with Presidency College, Calcutta and from 1865 to 1869 the college functioned as the Civil Engineering Department of Presidency College. In 1880, the college was shifted to its present campus at Shibpur, Howrah, and was christened the 'Government College, Howrah,' in the premises of Bishop's College. It started imparting training in Civil as well as Mechanical Engineering. The college became wholly residential from the year 1889.1864: Newland made an attempt to classify elements (on the analogy of 7 musical notes. 'Every 8th note is similar to the first one and it is the first note of the next scale') [John Alexander Reina Newlands's Octaves; Law of Octaves]
1864 (Mar 27): Karl Joel (27 March 1864 – 23 July 1934) was a German philosopher and professor. Joel was born in Hirschberg, Silesia, and died in Walenstadt, Switzerland. His father was a rabbi who studied under Schelling. Joel was a professor at the University of Basel from 1902. #SushantSinghRajput #SSR
1864:[Research] William Huggins used spectroscopy to determine that a nebula is made of gas.
1864:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Nicholls weds Mary Anna Bell, daughter of her aunt.
1864:[Book][who] Passages from the Life of a Philosopher - Book by Charles Babbage
1864:[India] Shimla (formerly Simla) became the official summer capital of British India in 1864, housing imperial administration from April to October. Sites like Darjeeling, Mussoorie, and Ooty started as sanatoriums or military outposts before turning into hubs of regional administration. Towns featured Victorian and Edwardian structures, churches, and bandstands reminiscent of the English countryside.
1865: Harishchandra Bharatendu went to the Jagannath temple in Puri, Orissa with his family, when he was merely 15 years of age. During this trip he was influenced by the Bengal Renaissance and decided to bring the genres of social, historical, and Puranic plays and novels into Hindi.
1865 (Nov 12):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Elizabeth Gaskell died aged 55 as a successful novelist and short-story writer.
1865:[Day] Lala Lajpat Rai was born on 28 January, 1865 in Punjab. He was a prominent nationalist leader who played an important role in India’s struggle for freedom. He also earned the title of 'Punjab Kesari' or 'the Lion of Punjab'. He initiated the foundation of the Punjab National Bank. He died on 17 November 1928, due to serious injuries. The University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences in Hisar, Haryana is named after Lala Lajpat Rai.
1865:[Mntngg] In 1865, the Royal Geographical Society renamed Peak XV–at the time only recently identified as the world's highest peak–to Mount Everest in his honour. Maj Gen Andrew Scott Waugh, his protégé and successor as surveyor general, had been responsible for putting his name forward in 1856. Everest's name was used as a compromise due to the difficulty of choosing between multiple local names for the mountain. He initially objected to the honour, as he had had nothing to do with its discovery and believed his name was not easily written or pronounced in Hindi.
1865:[Military][India] Field Marshall William Riddell Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood, Commander-in-Chief of India was born in 1865
1865:[Business] The Cargill-MacMillan family owns Cargill, America's largest private company with revenues of $177 billion. The company was founded in 1865 when W.W. Cargill started a grain storage business in Conover, Iowa.
1865:[India] Muth Formation (Muth Quartzite)Age: Early to Middle Devonian (approx. 400 million years ago).Lithology: Thick, compact, pure white to mottled quartzite with minor dolomite layers near the top.Location & History: First named by Ferdinand Stoliczka in 1865 after Muth village in the Pin Valley of Spiti.Environment: Formed in ancient coastal beach, barrier island, and dune settings.
1866: Britain got connected to the US through insulated underwater telegraph cables.
1866: Henri Nestlé of Vevey, Vaud, Switzerland founded Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company
1866: High courts of India - Allahabad High Courts set-up in Uttar Pradesh.
1866: The United States are heavily associated with slavery and the capture and forceful relocation of Africans. Between 1514 and 1866, around 300,000 disembarked in the U.S. directly, while many more arrived via the inter-American slave trade from the Caribbean or Latin America. It is estimated that almost 4.5 million enslaved Africans arrived in the Caribbean and another 3.2 million in present-day Brazil. Around 40 percent of Africans uprooted in slavery are believed to have come from Angola in Southern Africa, with another 30 percent who came from the Bay of Benin in West Africa. It is estimated that close to 20 million people were forced to leave the African continent enslaved. By 1800, this had decimated the African population to half the size it would have been had slavery not occurred. - SlaveVoyages.org
1866:[Books] Fyodor Dostoevsky most acclaimed novels include Crime and Punishment (1866, first published when he was 45YO), The Idiot (1869), Demons (1872), The Adolescent (1875) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). His Notes from Underground, a novella published in 1864, is considered one of the first works of existentialist literature.
1867: The idea of flashing dots and dashes from a lantern was first put in to practice by Captain, later Vice Admiral, Philip Colomb. His original code, which the Navy used for seven years, was not identical with Morse, but Morse code was eventually adopted with the addition of several special signals. Flashing lights were the second generation of signaling in the Royal Navy.
1866:[SpaceX] 87 Sylvia is one of the largest asteroids. It is the parent body of the Sylvia family and member of Cybele group located beyond the main asteroid belt. Sylvia was the first asteroid known to possess more than one moon. Wikipedia Moons: Romulus, Remus Orbital period: 2,369 days Discovered: 16 May 1866 Discoverers: N. R. Pogson, Franck Marchis Spectral type: P-type asteroid Gravity: 0.0729 m/s² Asteroid group: Cybele asteroids
1866:[Business] Jack Daniel's premium Tennessee whiskey is still made using iron-free cave spring water, and is charcoal-mellowed and matured at America's oldest registered distillery, established in 1866 in Lynchburg, Tennessee.
1866:[crime] The Frontier and Wild West Era (1850–1900) - 1866 (Feb 13): The first daylight bank robbery in peacetime U.S. occurs at the Clay County Savings Association in Liberty, Missouri, attributed to outlaws like the James-Younger Gang.
1867:[India] The first reliable census in India was conducted between 1867 and 1871 (the 1872 Census), meaning figures for the period before this are based on estimates rather than official counts.
1867:[Education][US][Public] University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign founded.
1867: Henri Nestlé created a nutritious product for infants that could be used by mothers who were unable to breast-feed.1867: The idea of flashing dots and dashes from a lantern was first put in to practice by Captain, later Vice Admiral, Philip Colomb. His original code, which the Navy used for seven years, was not identical with Morse, but Morse code was eventually adopted with the addition of several special signals. Flashing lights were the second generation of signaling in the Royal Navy.
1867:[Book] Karl Marx's Das Kapital, also known as Capital: A Critique of Political Economy or sometimes simply Capital.
1867:[Books] "Dover Beach" is a lyric poem by the English poet Matthew Arnold. It was first published in 1867 in the collection New Poems; however, surviving notes indicate its composition may have begun as early as 1849. The most likely date is 1851. (DU)
1869:Prior to 1899, the British administration used earlier legislative attempts to raise state revenue by imposing taxes on documents, most notably the Stamp Act, 1869, which was later replaced by the Indian Stamp Act, 1879. However, the 1879 legislation underwent frequent modifications over the following decades, prompting the need for a unified, modern framework. The British government's primary goal was to ensure systematic revenue collection from financial and commercial dealings. By forcing documents and legal instruments (such as promissory notes, leases, and transfers) to be stamped, the government also lent legal authenticity to these papers. Under the original law, any document not properly stamped would lose its evidentiary value in a court of law.
1868:[Education][US][Public] University of California, Berkeley founded.
1868: after getting influenced from the Bengal Rnaissance, poet Harishchandra at the age of 18, translated the Bengali drama Vidyasundar (a romantic poem of Medieval Bangla literature based on the love between Vidya and Sundar), into Hindi.
1868:[SpaceX] Over 100 asteroids had been located by mid-1868, and in 1891, the introduction of astrophotography by Max Wolf accelerated the rate of discovery. A total of 1,000 asteroids had been found by 1921, 10,000 by 1981, and 100,000 by 2000. Modern asteroid survey systems now use automated means to locate new minor planets in ever-increasing numbers.
1868 (Dec): World's first traffic lights were installed outside the British Houses of Parliament, London. It was gas-lit and operated by pliceman. It exploded a month later during operation, reportedly killing the operator.
1868 (Dec): World's first traffic lights were installed outside the British Houses of Parliament, London. It was gas-lit and operated by pliceman. It exploded a month later during operation, reportedly killing the operator.
1868:[SpaceX] 107 Camilla is one of the largest asteroids from the outermost edge of the asteroid belt, approximately 250 kilometers in diameter. It is a member of the Sylvia family and located within the Cybele group. Wikipedia Moons: S/2001 (107) 1, S/2016 (107) 1 Orbital period: 2,378 days Discovered: 17 November 1868 Discoverer: N. R. Pogson Spectral type: C-type asteroid Asteroid group: Cybele asteroids Apparent magnitude (V): 11.53
1868:[Politics][Corruption] William Magear "Boss" Tweed was an American politician most notable for being the political boss of Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party's political machine that played a major role in the politics of 19th-century New York City and State. Wikipedia Born: 3 April 1823, United States Died: 12 April 1878 (age 55 years), Ludlow Street Jail Party: Republican Party Previous offices: New York State Senator (1868–1874), Representative (1853–1855) Books: The People Of The State Of New York, Plaintiffs And Respondents, Against William M. Tweed, Impleaded With The Mayor, Aldermen, And Commonalty Of The City Of New York, Defendant And Appellant: Case On Appeal, Part 2 Parents: Richard Tweed, Eliza Magear Tweed Spouse: Jane Skaden (m. 1844)
1869:[Geography][GeoPolitics] The Legendary Inauguration Ceremony (November 17th, 1869) : The water of the two seas (the Red Sea and the Mediterranean) met on August 18th, 1869, and the Suez Canal was born; “the artery of prosperity for Egypt and the world”. That Canal was described by the late renowned geographer, Dr.
1869:[Research][Medicine] Nucleic acid was first discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869 at the University of Tübingen, Germany. He gave its first name as nuclein.[4] In the early 1880s Albrecht Kossel further purified the substance and discovered its highly acidic properties. He later also identified the nucleobases. In 1889 Richard Altmann created the term nucleic acid – at that time DNA and RNA were not differentiated. In 1938 Astbury and Bell published the first X-ray diffraction pattern of DNA.
1868: after working in his father's company until he was 29. JN Tata founded a trading company with ₹21,000 capital (worth ₹21 million in 2015 prices). He bought a bankrupt oil mill at Chinchpokli in 1869 and converted it to a cotton mill, which he renamed Alexandra Mill.1869:Prior to 1899, the British administration used earlier legislative attempts to raise state revenue by imposing taxes on documents, most notably the Stamp Act, 1869, which was later replaced by the Indian Stamp Act, 1879. However, the 1879 legislation underwent frequent modifications over the following decades, prompting the need for a unified, modern framework. The British government's primary goal was to ensure systematic revenue collection from financial and commercial dealings. By forcing documents and legal instruments (such as promissory notes, leases, and transfers) to be stamped, the government also lent legal authenticity to these papers. Under the original law, any document not properly stamped would lose its evidentiary value in a court of law.
1869:[mktg][FnB][India] Crawford Market, officially renamed Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Mandai, is a historic South Mumbai landmark. Completed in 1869 and designed by William Emerson, it was named after Arthur Crawford, Bombay's first Municipal Commissioner. Funded by Cowasji Jehangir, it famously became the first building in India lit by electricity in 1882. Original Name: Named after Arthur Travers Crawford, the city's first Municipal Commissioner during the British Raj.New Name: Renamed post-independence to honor the social reformer Mahatma Jotirao Phule.Funding: Built using a generous donation by local philanthropist Cowasji Jehangir. Style: Features a distinct mix of Norman, Flemish, and Victorian Gothic architecture.Fountains: Includes stone bas-relief fountains at the center designed by Lockwood Kipling, father of author Rudyard Kipling.Innovations: Marked an era of urban modernization as the earliest building in India to use electric lighting. Relocation: Wholesale fruit traders moved to Navi Mumbai in March 1996, transforming the space more toward retail and specialty goods.
1869:[research] The understanding that the human genome is composed of DNA, which is made up of nucleotides, emerged gradually. In 1869, Johann Friedrich Miescher first identified DNA (then called "nuclein"). However, it wasn't until the 1950s, with the groundbreaking work of Watson and Crick, that the double helix structure of DNA and its role as the carrier of genetic information became widely accepted. Specifically, the identification of nucleotides as the building blocks of DNA was a crucial step in this process.
1869 (Mar 6): Dmitri Mendeleev presented the first periodic table of chemical elements to the Russian Chemical Society.
1869 (Feb 15) Ghalib died aged 72 at Gali Qasim Jaan, Ballimaran, Chandni Chowk, (now Ghalib ki Haveli, Delhi, India).
1869: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi born at Porbandar State, Kathiawar Agency, British Indian Empire (now in Gujarat, India)
1869: Sherwood College was founded at Nainital, UK. It was the brain-child of Dr. Condon, H.S. Reid and others and under the patronage of the Rt. Rev. Robert Milman, DD, the seventh Metropolitan of India. The idea took shape as the Nainital Diocesan School, as Sherwood was once called.1869 (Feb 15) Ghalib died aged 72 at Gali Qasim Jaan, Ballimaran, Chandni Chowk, (now Ghalib ki Haveli, Delhi, India).
1869:[Business][Food] Julius Maggi (1846–1912) took over his father's mill business in Kemptthal, Switzerland. Under his leadership, the business developed into one of the pioneers of industrial food production, with the aim of improving the diet of working-class families through better nutrient supply and faster preparation. Maggi (German: [ˈmaɡi] ⓘ, Italian: [ˈmaddʒi]) is an international brand of seasonings, instant soups, and noodles that originated in Switzerland in the late 19th century. The Maggi company was acquired by Nestlé in 1947.
1869 (Jun 5):[Education][India] Sherwood was founded on 5 June 1869. It was the brain-child of Dr. Condon, H.S. Reid and others under the patronage of the Rt. Rev. Robert Milman, DD, the seventh Metropolitan of India. The idea took shape as the Diocesan Boys' High School, Naini Tal, as Sherwood was called until 1937. Sherwood's sister school, formally known as the Diocesan Girls' High School, became All Saints' College, Nainital. Alumni include Field Marshal S.H.F.J. Manekshaw, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, MC, former Chief of the Army Staff; Amitabh Bachhan, Indian megastar; Jim Corbett, Indo-British hunter, tracker, naturalist and author;
1869:[Books][India][Travel] Caleb Wright published India & Its Inhabitants. The author visited India and travelled extensively there, for the express purpose of collecting the information contained in this volume. Curiosities and Remarkable Customs in Pagan and Mohammedan Countries: Being a Series of Lectures and Descriptions Caleb Wright (1848:); Superstitions of the Ashantees: Especially Those which Lead Them to Sacrifice on Certain Occasions, Thousands of Human Victims Caleb Wright (1848:)
The late 19th century (roughly 1870–1900)
1870s:[Economics][Research] Based on the provided search results, the key figures associated with the development of marginal utility theory in the 19th century—often referred to as the Marginalist Revolution—are William Stanley Jevons, Carl Menger, and Léon Walras, who independently developed the theory in the early 1870s.
1870s:The late 19th century (roughly 1870–1900) was a transformative era defined by rapid industrialization, massive urban growth, and technological innovation like electricity and steel production. Known as the Gilded Age in the U.S., it saw the rise of corporations, labor unions, and skyscrapers, while fostering global connectivity through railroads and telegraphs.
1870s:[Telco] The late 19th century, often considered the period from roughly 1870 to 1900, was a time of significant change and development, particularly in the Western world. It was marked by the Second Industrial Revolution, advancements in technology like the telegraph and telephone, and social shifts including the rise of new political ideologies and movements.
1870s: based on earlier work with harmonic (multi-signal) telegraphs, the electric telephone was invented.
1870s:[Politics][Corruption] In United States history, the Gilded Age is the period from about the late 1870s to the late 1890s, which occurred between the Reconstruction era and the Progressive Era. It was named by 1920s historians after Mark Twain's 1873 novel The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today.
1870s:Social groups have evolved from, or rather the study of them has, from informal community, religious, and, for example, settlement house structures in the late 19th century to professionalized, psychological-based methods in the 20th century. Initially, they addressed social problems caused by rapid urbanization and industrialization, evolving through the 1930s to the 1950s with a focus on group dynamics, therapy, and social reform. (Sociology)
1870s:[edu] Late 19th Century: Land-grant universities and technical colleges across the globe institutionalized standard four-year bachelor of science degrees in civil engineering.
1870s:[crime][gov] 1870s–1890s: Ku Klux Klan and Moonshiner overlap occurs in the American South, where anti-government sentiments fuel a massive boom in hidden mountain stills. In Europe, state monopolies on vodka (like in the Russian Empire) trigger widespread rural homebrewing (samogon).
1870s:[tour][uk] Gartang Gali is a historic 136-to-500-meter hanging wooden skywalk carved into a vertical granite cliff at an altitude of 11,000 feet in Uttarakhand's Nelong Valley.Origins and ConstructionEarly Roots: Built roughly 150 years ago, the narrow stairway is traditionally attributed to stone-chiseling Pathan traders from Peshawar.Alternative Accounts: Some historical research and accounts linked the British explorer and entrepreneur Frederick "Pahadi" Wilson to its conceptualization alongside local Jadh and Bhotiya communities.Trade Purpose: The treacherous cliff-side path served as a vital Silk Road and Indo-Tibetan trade route. Merchants and nomads bartered items like salt, wool, pashmina, spices, and tea, often using yaks and mules to cross between Tibet and Uttarakhand.Wartime Escape and ClosureWorld War II: Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer famously used this route to escape a British internment camp in Dehradun and flee into Tibet—an adventure detailed in his memoir Seven Years in Tibet.The 1962 War: Following the 1962 Sino-Indian War, the Indian military restricted access to the sensitive border region. The wooden structure was abandoned and fell into severe disrepair for 59 years.Modern RevivalReopening: The Uttarakhand Tourism Development Board and local authorities restored the wooden walkway using traditional methods.Tourism: Gartang Gali officially reopened to the public in August 2021 as a major heritage and adventure tourism attraction in the Uttarkashi district.
Nelong Valley originated as an ancient, high-altitude trans-Himalayan trade route carved by the Jadh Ganga river in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand, India.Historical Origins & TradeInhabitants: The valley was originally inhabited by the Bhotiya (specifically the Rongpa) community.Ancient Commerce: For centuries, it served as a vital commercial passage connecting India and Tibet.Barter Economy: Locals traded woolens, blankets, carpets, salt, yak butter, and agricultural tools through a barter system at markets like Bada Haat.Infrastructure: Historical landmarks like the 150-year-old cliff-carved Gartang Gali wooden staircase and old suspension bridges were built to facilitate this rugged cross-border movement.Modern ChangesGeopolitics: Following the 1962 Indo-China War, the valley was sealed off for security reasons and placed under restricted military administration near the Line of Actual Control (LAC).Reopening: Located inside the Gangotri National Park (though park rules apply), the Nelang area was partially reopened to domestic civilian tourists in 2015 under strict permit regulations.
1870:The United States Department of Justice, also known as the Justice Department, is a federal executive department of the U.S. government that oversees the domestic enforcement of federal laws and the administration of justice. It is equivalent to the justice or interior ministries of other countries.
1870: Charleville Hotel was built at Mussoorie, India. King George V and Queen Mary stayed there and planted a sapling (whichis now full-grown). GoI bought it in 1959. Today, it houses LBSNAA.
1870: The Port of Kolkata (Bengali: কলকাতা বন্দর) opened. It is a riverine port in the city of Kolkata, India, located around 203 kilometres (126 mi) from the sea. It is the oldest operating port in India, and was constructed by the British East India Company.
1870: Sir Hari Singh Gour (26 November 1870 – 25 December 1949) was a distinguished lawyer, jurist, educationist, social reformer, poet, and novelist. Gour was the First Vice-Chancellor of the University of Delhi and Nagpur University, founder and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sagar, Deputy President of the Central Legislative Assembly of British India, an Indian Delegate to the Joint Parliamentary Committee, a Member of the Indian Central Committee associated with the Royal Commission on the Indian Constitution (popularly known as the Simon Commission),[1] and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
1870: Industrial Revolution-2 was at its peak. Division of Labor. Hydro-elctricity production for the mass.
1870: The Port of Kolkata (Bengali: কলকাতা বন্দর) opened. It is a riverine port in the city of Kolkata, India, located around 203 kilometres (126 mi) from the sea. It is the oldest operating port in India, and was constructed by the British East India Company.
1870: Sir Hari Singh Gour (26 November 1870 – 25 December 1949) was a distinguished lawyer, jurist, educationist, social reformer, poet, and novelist. Gour was the First Vice-Chancellor of the University of Delhi and Nagpur University, founder and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sagar, Deputy President of the Central Legislative Assembly of British India, an Indian Delegate to the Joint Parliamentary Committee, a Member of the Indian Central Committee associated with the Royal Commission on the Indian Constitution (popularly known as the Simon Commission),[1] and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
1870: Industrial Revolution-2 was at its peak. Division of Labor. Hydro-elctricity production for the mass.
1870 (Jun 9):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Charles Dickens died aged 58 in Higham, Kent, England.
1870:[Mntngg] C. T. Dent refers to Clinton Thomas Dent, an English surgeon, author, and mountaineer who lived from 1850 to 1912. He is known for his contributions to mountaineering, particularly his work on the Alps and his writings on the topic, including "Above the Snow Line: Mountaineering Sketches Between 1870 and 1880: Exploring the Victorian Era of Mountaineering"
1870:[Telco] The concept of impedance was introduced by Oliver Heaviside in the late 19th century. He coined the term "impedance" and defined it as a complex number representing the opposition to current flow in AC circuits, analogous to resistance in DC circuits.
1870:[mntngg] The “hardy, energetic young man, ready to undergo any fatigue, and acquire a practical knowledge of all parts of his profession” also contributed to modern mathematics, devising new formulas and applications. According to British historian, John Keay, “His greatest contribution to the computation was in working out and applying the allowance to be made for a phenomenon called refraction— the bending of straight lines by the density of the Earth’s atmosphere.”
Radhanath Sikdar passed away in May 1870, and while his name has gradually faded into oblivion, it would do us good to remember this gifted mathematician. Without his efforts, Peak XV would have just been another mountain in the Himalayas.
1871:[Economics][Research] William Stanley Jevons published Theory of Political Economy.
1871:[Economics][Research] Carl Menger published Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre (Principles of Economics).
1871:[Who] Born in Boston on May 19, 1871, to Nova Scotian immigrants, Walter Russell left school at age 9 and went to work, then put himself through the Massachusetts Normal Art School. He interrupted his fourth year to spend three months in Paris at the Académie Julian. Biographer Glenn Clark identifies four instructors who prepared him for an art career: Albert Munsell and Ernest Major in Boston, Howard Pyle in Philadelphia, and Jean-Paul Laurens in Paris.
1871:[Who] Walter Bowman Russell (May 19, 1871 – May 19, 1963) was an American impressionist painter, sculptor, and author. Russell wrote extensively on science topics, but his ideas were rejected by scientists.
1871:[GoI] Census indicates that the top 10 populous cities of India were Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Lucknow, Benaras, Patna, Delhi, Agra, Allahabad and Banglore resp.
1871:[History][Archaeo] Excavations at the mound of Hisarlik in northwest Turkey revealed the remains of ancient Troy. Initiated heavily by Heinrich Schliemann in 1871, the digs exposed nine major archaeological layers spanning thousands of years, shifting Homeric legends from myth into the realm of historical study.
1872:pedu] MIT redesignated its mechanical (engg) track as Course II, emphasizing in-house teaching laboratories and industrial site visits.
1872:[Technology][Medicine][Art] Alexander Muirhead is reported to have attached wires to the wrist of a patient with fever to obtain an electronic record of their heartbeat. (ECG)1872:[Research][Chemistry] PVC was synthesized in 1872 by German chemist Eugen Baumann after extended investigation and experimentation. The polymer appeared as a white solid inside a flask of vinyl chloride that had been left on a shelf sheltered from sunlight for four weeks.
1872:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who] Keshub Chunder Sen (November 19, 1838, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency - January 8, 1884, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency); 1872 (Age: 33-34) - Prominent leader of the Brahmo Samaj; instrumental in the Native Marriage Act of 1872.
1872:[SpaceX] 121 Hermione is a very large binary asteroid discovered in 1872. It orbits in the Cybele group in the far outer asteroid belt. As an asteroid of the dark C spectral type, it is probably composed of carbonaceous materials. In 2002, a small moon was found to be orbiting Hermione. Wikipedia Moon: S/2002 (121) 1 Orbital period: 2,344 days Radius: 95 km Spectral type: C-type asteroid Discoverer: James Craig Watson Discovered: 12 May 1872 Asteroid group: Cybele asteroids
1872:[SpaceX] 121 Hermione is a very large binary asteroid discovered in 1872. It orbits in the Cybele group in the far outer asteroid belt. As an asteroid of the dark C spectral type, it is probably composed of carbonaceous materials. In 2002, a small moon was found to be orbiting Hermione. Wikipedia Moon: S/2002 (121) 1 Orbital period: 2,344 days Radius: 95 km Spectral type: C-type asteroid Discoverer: James Craig Watson Discovered: 12 May 1872 Asteroid group: Cybele asteroids
1873:[India] Papers of Sir Herbert Risley, Indian Civil Service, Bengal 1873-1910, relating to census operations, caste, and ethnography in Bengal. Risley Collection: papers of Sir Herbert Hope Risley (1851-1911), Indian Civil Service, Bengal 1873-1910, Census Commissioner for India 1899-1902, Hon Director of Ethnography for India from 1901, comprising official reports and files relating to census operations in Bengal, and correspondence, lecture notes and articles relating to caste and ethnography in Bengal.
1873: Frederick Guthrie discovered the basic principle of operation of thermionic diodes. Guthrie discovered that a positively charged electroscope could be discharged by bringing a grounded piece of white-hot metal close to it (but not actually touching it). The same did not apply to a negatively charged electroscope, indicating that the current flow was only possible in one direction.
1873:[Books][Drama][UK][Who][Art] An idealised posthumous portrait of Charlotte Brontë by Duyckinick, based on a drawing by George Richmond
1873: Willoughby Smith discovered photoconductivity in solids.
1873: Levi Strauss & Co. or Levi's founded. Blue jeans were first invented by Jacob Davis and Levi Strauss.
1873 (Dec 9): Allahabad University. The foundation stone of the Muir Central College, Allahabad was laid by Governor-General of India, Lord Northbrook. The college was named after Sir William Muir, Lt. Governor of United Province, who was instrumental in its foundation. The building was designed by William Emerson, who also designed Victoria Memorial in Kolkata and Crawford Market in Mumbai in a combination of Indo-Saracenic, Egyptian and Gothic styles.
1873:[Physics][EM][Research] In Europe, electricity and magnetism were originally considered to be two separate forces. This view changed with the publication of James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in which the interactions of positive and negative charges were shown to be mediated by one force.
1873:[India] Bharatendu Harishchandra (9 September 1850 – 6 January 1885) was an Indian poet, writer, and playwright. He authored several dramas, biographical sketches, and travel accounts with the goal of influencing public opinion. Bharatendu Harishchandra is often considered the father of modern Hindi literature and theatre. Some modern Indian authors have described him as a Yug Charan for his writing depicting the exploitative nature of the British Raj. Vaidika Himsa Na Bhavati, 1873 (वैदिक हिंसा न भवति) Satya Harishchandra, 1876 (सत्य हरिश्चन्द्र) Bharat Durdasha, 1875 Niladevi, 1881 (नीलदेवी)
1873:1873 – Dr. Andrew Smith first used the terms "caisson disease" and "compressed air illness", describing 110 cases of decompression sickness as the physician in charge during construction of the Brooklyn Bridge.
1873:1873 – Dr. Andrew Smith first used the terms "caisson disease" and "compressed air illness", describing 110 cases of decompression sickness as the physician in charge during construction of the Brooklyn Bridge.
1873:[Maths] The method was introduced by Frobenius in 1873. The Frobenius method, developed by German mathematician Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, is a technique for finding series solutions to certain types of second-order ordinary differential equations, particularly those with singular points. It allows for solutions in the form of a power series multiplied by a power of (x - x₀), where x₀ is a regular singular point of the equation. This method is crucial when standard power series methods fail due to the presence of singular points.
1873:Ferdinand Georg Frobenius (26 October 1849 – 3 August 1917) was a German mathematician, best known for his contributions to the theory of elliptic functions, differential equations, number theory, and to group theory. He is known for the famous determinantal identities, known as Frobenius–Stickelberger formulae, governing elliptic functions, and for developing the theory of biquadratic forms. He was also the first to introduce the notion of rational approximations of functions (nowadays known as Padé approximants), and gave the first full proof for the Cayley–Hamilton theorem. He also lent his name to certain differential-geometric objects in modern mathematical physics, known as Frobenius manifolds.
1874:[Economics][Research] Léon Walras published the first part of Éléments d'économie politique pure.
1874: Marconi performed simple experiments to send signals using EM waves at shorter distances of about 100 metres.
1874: Karl Ferdinand Braun and Arthur Schuster observed semiconducting effects. \German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the "unilateral conduction" of crystals.
1874: JN Tata setup a cotton mill at Nagpur, which he christened Empress Mill when Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India on 1 January 1877.
1874: Shillong was announced as the capital of Assam till 1972.
1874:[Book] Far from the Madding Crowd is Thomas Hardy's fourth novel and his first major literary success. It originally appeared anonymously as a monthly serial in Cornhill Magazine, where it gained a wide readership. Hardy's first novel, The Poor Man and the Lady, finished by 1867, failed to find a publisher.
1874:[Delhi] Okhla's industrial development is strongly linked to the Okhla Barrage and Agra Canal, which were established in 1874. The Okhla Industrial Estate was inaugurated in 1958, becoming a significant center for small-scale industries. 1990: A portion of the Okhla area on the Yamuna River was designated as the Okhla Bird Sanctuary. 1996: The Okhla landfill was commissioned. 2018: The Okhla landfill was decommissioned after reaching its capacity (in 22 years).
1874:[Tourism][IS] 1874: Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led an expedition into the Black Hills, discovering gold along French Creek and sparking a gold rush.
187x:[Philosophy][Culture] Gymnosophy (from Greek γυμνός gymnós "naked" and σοφία sophía "wisdom") was a movement and a philosophy practiced in Europe and the US from the end of the 19th century to the mid 20th century. The practice involved nudity, asceticism, and meditation. Earliest hippies maybe?
1875s:[tour][de] The name of this bird species is something of a misnomer. Mute swans are not actually mute, just less vocal than their cousins, the whooper and trumpeter swans. Appearing equally majestic as those noisier birds, mute swans sport the classic swan elegance with curving necks and snowy plumage. These swans also project an effortless grace while being among the largest and heaviest of all waterfowl species—bested only by the trumpeter. Found mainly in Europe, mute swans will migrate throughout Asia and parts of North Africa as well. In the late 19th century, they were introduced to North America, where they're now considered an invasive species: Their numbers have grown to the point where they're depleting vegetation, which negatively impacts native aquatic birds. In other parts of the world, including New Zealand, introduced populations are far smaller—there, mute swans are considered a protected species.
1875::[Education][India][Public] Aligarh Muslim University is a public central university in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India, which was originally established by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College.
1875: BSE, the first organised stock exchange started in Bombay by Native Share Brokers' Assocoation. BSE is Asia's oldest stock exchange.
1875: Introduction of Railways in Indore. The business flourished till the reign of Maharaja Shivaji Rao Holkar, Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar III and Maharaja Yeshwant Rao Holkar.
1875: Introduction of Railways in Indore. The business flourished till the reign of Maharaja Shivaji Rao Holkar, Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar III and Maharaja Yeshwant Rao Holkar.
1875: [India] It was in 1875 that the Indian Share Market first started functioning. The first share trading association in India was known as the Native Share and Stock Broker's Association, only to become the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) later on. This trading association started off its operations with around 318 members.
1875:[Extreme][Research] The Mariana trench was first sounded during the Challenger expedition using a weighted rope, which recorded a depth of 4,475 fathoms (8,184 metres; 26,850 feet).
1875:[Technology][Medicine] Richard Caton (1842–1926), a physician practicing in Liverpool, presented his findings about electrical phenomena of the exposed cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys in the British Medical Journal. (EEG)
1875:[India][Culture][Extreme] Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj. Dayanand Saraswati born Mool Shankar Tiwari, was a Hindu philosopher, social leader and founder of the Arya Samaj, a reform movement of Hinduism. His book Satyarth Prakash has remained one of the influential texts on the philosophy of the Vedas and clarifications of various ideas and duties of human beings. He translated the Vedas and wrote three books named Satyartha Prakash, Veda Bhasya Bhumika, and Veda Bhasya.
1875:[Mntngg][Extreme] George Anderson ascends Half Dome. It is a quartz monzonite batholith at the eastern end of Yosemite Valley in Yosemite National Park, California. It is a well-known rock formation in the park, named for its distinct shape. One side is a sheer face while the other three sides are smooth and round, making it appear like a dome cut in half. Elevation: 2,694 m First ascender: George Anderson Mountain range: Sierra Nevada Coordinates: 37°44′46″N 119°31′59″W / 37.7460363°N 119.5329397°W Easiest route: Cable route Parent peak: Clouds Rest Prominence: 1,360 ft (410 m)
1875:[extreme] The longest living human with verified documentation is Jeanne Calment, a French woman who lived to be 122 years and 164 days old. She was born on February 21, 1875, and died on August 4, 1997. The record for the maximum verified lifespan in the modern world is 122 years for women (Jeanne Calment) and 116 years for men (Jiroemon Kimura). Some scientists estimate that in case of the most ideal conditions people can live up to 127 years.
----------------------------------------- 100 years of Independent USA --------------------------------------------
1876:[Education][US][Public] University of Colorado Boulder founded.
1876, Mar: Alexander Graham Bell invented Telephone at Scotland.1876: The British India resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire issued passports under the name of Indian Empire. As India, it was a founding member of the League of Nations, a participating nation in the Summer Olympics in 1900, 1920, 1928, 1932, and 1936, and a founding member of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1945.
1876:[Business][Polity][mgmt] In 1876, at a time when silver was falling in value, chiefly due to the opening of new mines in the United States, the Bengal Chamber of Commerce was so concerned that it proposed that the Government of India should suspend the coining of silver. The Economist of 5 August 1876 reported that The Chamber of Commerce of Bengal have resolved "that it is expedient for the government to suspend clause 19 of Act 23 of 1870, which makes it obligatory on the Indian Mint to receive all silver tendered for coinage... and that during such suspension it be unlawful to import coined rupees.
1876: Birth of PSTN. Commercialization of the telephone began in 1876, with instruments operated in pairs for private use between two locations. Users who wanted to communicate with persons at multiple locations had as many telephones as necessary for the purpose. Alerting another user of the desire to establish a telephone call was accomplished by whistling loudly into the transmitter until the other party heard the alert. Bells were soon added to stations for signaling, so an attendant no longer needed to wait for the whistle.1876:[Book] Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. He was lauded as the "greatest humorist the United States has produced," and William Faulkner called him "the father of American literature". His novels include The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and its sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), the latter of which has often been called the "Great American Novel".
1876:[Travel][India][RJ] The museum built in the year 1876, lies within the Ram Niwas Garden, Jaipur, and the oldest one in the state of Rajasthan. It was first envisaged as a concert hall, bearing a resemblance to Victorian architecture and Albert Hall Museum, London.
1876:[Space][Research] Meudon Observatory, France is the foremost astronomical observatory of France, and one of the largest astronomical centers in the world.
1876:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Nicholls broke his silence briefly in protest at some sections of T.W. Reid's biography of Charlotte – written in co-operation with Charlotte's oldest friend Ellen Nussey – which quoted her writings without his permission.
1876:[meds][business][military] The company was founded by Colonel Eli Lilly, a pharmaceutical chemist and Union army veteran of the American Civil War. Lilly served as the company president until his death in 1898.
1877 (Jan 1): Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.
1877:[Book] Plato's Apology is one of the most famous and admired texts in world literature. It offers what many scholars believe is a fairly reliable account of what the Athenian philosopher Socrates (469 BCE - 399 BCE) said in court on the day that he was tried and condemned to death on charges of impiety and corrupting the youth.
1877:[Extreme][Research] a map was published ft. Mariana Trench, called Tiefenkarte des Grossen Ozeans ("Depth map of the Great Ocean") by Petermann, which showed a Challenger Tief ("Challenger deep") at the location of that sounding.
1877:[Extreme][Research] a map was published ft. Mariana Trench, called Tiefenkarte des Grossen Ozeans ("Depth map of the Great Ocean") by Petermann, which showed a Challenger Tief ("Challenger deep") at the location of that sounding.
1877:[space] The two moons of Mars were discovered in 1877 by American astronomer Asaph Hall. It is named after Phobos, the Greek god of fear and panic, who is the son of Ares (Mars) and twin brother of Deimos.
1878:[edu] The first formal bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering in the U.S. was awarded at the University of Minnesota.
1878: Edward Weston's Dynamo Electric Generator.
1878: George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange which opened in New Haven, Connecticut in January, 1878. The switchboard was built from "carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire" and could handle two simultaneous conversations. Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878.
1878: Hall effect ( @ Johns Hopkins University, USA by Edwin Herbert Hall )
1878-79: The first commercial telephone services were set up on both sides of the Atlantic in the cities of New Haven and London.Telephone exchanges (using many switchboards) appeared about two decades later.
1878:[edu] The first formal bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering in the U.S. was awarded at the University of Minnesota.
1878: Edward Weston's Dynamo Electric Generator.
1878: George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange which opened in New Haven, Connecticut in January, 1878. The switchboard was built from "carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire" and could handle two simultaneous conversations. Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878.
1878: Hall effect ( @ Johns Hopkins University, USA by Edwin Herbert Hall )
1878-79: The first commercial telephone services were set up on both sides of the Atlantic in the cities of New Haven and London.Telephone exchanges (using many switchboards) appeared about two decades later.
1878:The first commercially practical scuba rebreather was designed and built by the diving engineer Henry Fleuss in 1878, while working for Siebe Gorman in London.
1878:The rule suggests that the depth of the dive (in feet) and the time spent underwater (in minutes) should not exceed a combined total of 120. The goal of this rule is to keep divers within a range where they can avoid serious risks such as nitrogen narcosis and decompression sickness.
How Long Does a Scuba Tank Last? The duration of the air supply in a scuba tank depends on the factors mentioned above. Typically, an average scuba tank filled to 200 bar (3,000 psi) can last for 30 to 60 minutes at a depth of 10 to 18 metres (30 to 60 feet).
How Long Does a Scuba Tank Last? The duration of the air supply in a scuba tank depends on the factors mentioned above. Typically, an average scuba tank filled to 200 bar (3,000 psi) can last for 30 to 60 minutes at a depth of 10 to 18 metres (30 to 60 feet).
1878:[silvics][India] The Forest Research Institute (FRI) in Dehradun, established in 1906, The institution originated as the Forest School of Dehradun, later renamed the Imperial Forest School in 1884. Housed in a massive Greco-Roman style building inaugurated in 1929, it evolved from the 1878 Forest School, becoming a deemed university in 1991 and a National Heritage site.
1878:[Tourism] Visitors sometimes outnumber residents by far in the Faroe Islands village of Mykines, which sits on the island of the same name. The views are breathtaking, but getting around can be challenging due to sheer cliffs, steep paths, and a rugged, often treacherous coastline. Here on the westernmost of the Faroe Islands, the main population center consists of a handful of cottages and other small buildings, including a turf-roofed church built in 1878. For those wanting to explore further, a strikingly picturesque lighthouse is perched on the far western part of Mykines, on an islet connected to the main isle via a footbridge.
1878 (Oct 27):[crime] The Manhattan Savings Institution is robbed, marking a massive early U.S. urban bank heist.
1879:[Extreme] The heaviest baby ever recorded weighed 22 pounds (9.98 kg) and was born in 1879. This baby, born to Anna Bates, was also 28 inches long. The baby, nicknamed "Babe", was sadly stillborn.
1879:[Extreme] The earliest documented Nitrox dive, using oxygen-enriched air, was conducted by Henry Fleuss in 1879, utilizing a rebreather. While earlier explorations of breathing mixtures underwater existed, Fleuss's dive is notable for its use of a specific oxygen-enriched mix.
Ascent Rate: Ascending too quickly can cause nitrogen bubbles to form in the blood and tissues, leading to the bends. Divers need to ascend slowly and make mandatory decompression stops at specific depths.
Depth: The deeper the dive, the longer the decompression time.
Time at Depth: The longer the diver stays at depth, the more nitrogen accumulates in the body, requiring a longer ascent.
Breathing Gas: Different breathing mixtures (like Nitrox) can affect decompression times.
A diver should ascend most slowly from his safety stop to the surface, even more slowly than 30 feet per a minute. Nitrogen in a diver's body will expand most quickly during the final ascent, and allowing his body additional time to eliminate this nitrogen will further reduce the diver's risk of decompression sickness.
1879: The Bombay Dyeing & Mfg. Co. Ltd. estd. at Bombay, Bombay Presidency, British India. It is the flagship company of the Wadia Group, engaged mainly into the business of Textiles. Bombay Dyeing is one of India's largest producers of textiles.
1879: The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom at South Africa.
1879 (Jul 24): The first demonstration of an electric light in Calcutta (now Kolkata) was conducted on by P.W. Fleury & Co.
1879: The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom at South Africa.
1879 (Jul 24): The first demonstration of an electric light in Calcutta (now Kolkata) was conducted on by P.W. Fleury & Co.
1879:[Music] The most familiar Hawaiian instrument is the 'ukulele, a small type of guitar. The instrument was probably introduced to Hawai'i in 1879 by Portuguese settlers from Madeira who brought with them a small guitar called the braguinha.
1879:[Tourism][UK] By the late 19th century, Southwold successfully transitioned from a rugged industrial port into a refined Victorian holiday resort. This transformation accelerated dramatically with the opening of the Southwold Railway in 1879, which connected the coast to London and brought waves of tourists seeking fashionable thermal saltwater bathing. The tourism boom culminated in 1900 with the construction of the iconic 810-foot Southwold Pier, solidifying the town's reputation as a premier destination for seaside entertainment and promenade culture. Dozens of small shelters skirt busy beaches here at the seaside resort of Southwold, England, whether built on boardwalks above the beach or plopped right on the sand like these. Owning one of these convenient day-use huts is a pricey prospect, as they fetch well over 100,000 British pounds on the market. But many can be rented for a reasonable fee, offering a kitchenette and shady, private lounge space for a long day at the coast. Each hut has a name as unique as its paint job, from White Swan to Jabba the Hut.
1879:[crime][gov] The Irish Land War broke out (1879–1891) as tenant farmers organized massive resistance movements (such as the Land League) against predatory landlords who relied on arbitrary and mass evictions to clear agricultural holdings.
1880s:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who][Women] Swarnakumari Devi (August 28, 1855, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency - July 3, 1932, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency); Late 19th - early 20th century (Active from 1880s onwards, Age: 20s-60s) - First Bengali woman novelist, editor, and founded several women's associations; advocated for women's rights.
1880s:[mgmt] Industrial Revolution: Invention of mechanical time clocks (Willard Bundy, 1880s) automated attendance, replacing manual daily records. (timesheet)
1880s:1880s–1890s: Frederick Taylor developed his core time-study and management theories while working at Midvale Steel. (Industrial Engg)
1880:[art] The "thinking man" most famously refers to The Thinker, a renowned bronze sculpture created by French artist Auguste Rodin. Design: A nude male figure sitting on a rock, leaning forward with his hand supporting his chin. Meaning: It represents deep thought, philosophy, and human introspection. Location: Original casts and versions reside at the Musée Rodin in Paris and other major museums worldwide.
1880: Belgium had its first International Bell exchange (in Antwerp) in 1880. In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based in London and Manchester, both of which opened under Bell patents in 1879. For a long distance call, she plugged into a trunk circuit to connect to another operator in another bank of boards or at a remote central office. In 1918, the average time to complete the connection for a long-distance call was 15 minutes.1880s:[Bio][Research][Medicine] In biology, a pathogen, in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ. The term pathogen came into use in the 1880s.
1880s:[edu] Electrical engineering as a formal academic degree emerged in the early 1880s, growing out of physics departments to support the rapid rise of telegraphy, telephony, and electric power lighting. Key milestones include the first dedicated curricula at institutions like MIT and Cornell University, followed by a shift toward communications and electronics after World War I. Programs started as specialized physics sub-courses or options designed to train students for the commercial electrical industry. Cornell University and MIT established some of the earliest formal departments and degree pathways in the United States during the mid-to-late 1880s. Early classes centered on direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) machinery, lighting systems, and power distribution.
1880s:[crime] Bootlegging - Started in the 1880s in the American Midwest when people hid liquor in their boots to trade.Grew very large during the U.S. Prohibition era from 1920 to 1933 when alcohol was banned.Helped grow early organized crime groups that ran secret transport and hidden bars.
1880s:[crime][gov] The evolution of bootlegging spanned from 19th-century underground trading to a massive organized crime syndicate during the U.S. Prohibition Era. 1880s: The term "bootlegging" originated, describing the practice of hiding liquor flasks inside high boots during trades with Native Americans.
1880s:
1880:[edu] The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was established, helping standardize curricula around core math, physics, and thermodynamics.
1880 (Feb 13): Thomas Edison independently rediscovered the principle of operation of thermionic diodes.
1880: Dhanpat Rai Srivastav "Premchand" (also, "Nawab Rai") was born on 31 July in Lamhi, a village located near Varanasi (Banaras), North-Western Provinces, British India in a Kayastha family. His parents named him Dhanpat Rai ("the master of wealth"), while his uncle, Mahabir, a rich landowner, nicknamed him "Nawab" ("Prince"). "Nawab Rai" was the first pen name chosen by Premchand.
1880: Money Order was developed in India by Britishers.
1880: Dhanpat Rai Srivastav "Premchand" (also, "Nawab Rai") was born on 31 July in Lamhi, a village located near Varanasi (Banaras), North-Western Provinces, British India in a Kayastha family. His parents named him Dhanpat Rai ("the master of wealth"), while his uncle, Mahabir, a rich landowner, nicknamed him "Nawab" ("Prince"). "Nawab Rai" was the first pen name chosen by Premchand.
1880: Money Order was developed in India by Britishers.
1880 (Jan 31): The first big incident that is usually mentioned is the disappearance of the Atalanta ship. It disappeared with her entire crew after setting sail from the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda.
1890 (Jul):[Books] "The Critic as Artist" is an essay by Oscar Wilde, containing the most extensive statements of his aesthetic philosophy. A dialogue in two parts, it is by far the longest one included in his collection of essays titled Intentions published in 1 May 1891. "The Critic as Artist" is a significantly revised version of articles that first appeared in the July and September 1890 issues of The Nineteenth Century, originally entitled "The True Function and Value of Criticism." The essay is a conversation between its leading voice Gilbert and Ernest, who suggests ideas for Gilbert to reject.
1880:[Travel][India][RJ] Kanhaiyalal Bagla Haveli is a beautiful structure, which stands on the south of the main bazaar. Constructed in around 1880, the haveli represents the finest lattice work and architectural styles in the entire Shekhawati region.
1880:[Food]The factory process consisted of hand rolling on a table, pasting, and hand packaging. In 1880 James A. Bonsack was granted a U.S. patent for a cigarette machine in which tobacco was fed onto a continuous strip of paper and was automatically formed, pasted, closed, and cut to lengths by a rotary cutting knife.
1881:[Culture] The 1881 MahaKumbh was a major Purna gathering held at Prayagraj (Allahabad). Marked by deep religious devotion under British colonial rule, it signified the completion of 12 regular 12-year Kumbh cycles (144 years prior to the grand Maha Kumbh of 2025 @ Prayagraj). Travel Methods: Pilgrims reached the holy confluence largely on foot or via bullock carts after journeys lasting weeks or months.Colonial Control: British authorities closely monitored the massive crowds, levied taxes, and imposed basic administrative or sanitary rules on the encampments.Communication: News and arrival times spread strictly by word of mouth or traditional messengers rather than modern broadcast. Spiritual Focus: Life at the mela revolved around community prayer, traditional akhada processions, devotional chants, and ritual bathing at the Sangam.
The Kumbh Mela traditionally concludes on Maha Shivratri (the 13th/14th day of the dark half of the month of Falgun / Feb-Mar), rather than strictly on a Purnima or Amavasya. While the festival starts on Paush Purnima (full moon of Jan-Feb) and features major bathing days like Mauni Amavasya, the final holy dip marking its end is Maha Shivratri.
1881: Vitamin A - Nicolai Lunin first suggested that milk contained essential substances beyond proteins, fats, and carbohydrates needed for health.
1881:[Education][UK][Public] University of Liverpool founded.
1881:[Education][UK][Public] University of Nottingham founded.
1881:[Education][India][Public] St. Stephen's College established in Delhi, India1881: The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania was the first business school and the world's first collegiate biz. school.
1881 (Feb 1): St. Stephen's College was founded by the Cambridge Mission to Delhi and Socity for the Propagation of the Gospel.
1881: Oudh Commercial Bank, the first complete commercial bank (i.e. bank of ltd. liability) managed by Indians was founded.
1881: ampere (A) was first defined as 'A tenth of the electromagnetic CGS unit of current. The [CGS] electromagnetic unit of current is that current, flowing in an arc 1 cm long of a circle 1 cm in radius, that creates a field of one oersted at the centre.'
1881:[India][Art][Writing] Bharatendu's Andher Nagari (अन्धेर नगरी, City of Darkness), 1881: A popular play of modern Hindi drama and a political satire. Translated and performed in many Indian languages by prominent Indian directors like B. V. Karanth, Prasanna, Arvind Gaur and Sanjay Upadhyaya.
1882:[Who][Research] Rotating Magnetic Field: The sudden mental breakthrough while walking in a Budapest park in 1882 that led to the alternating current (AC) motor. (Nikola Tesla)
1882: Post Office Savings Bank in India. Postal Life Insurance developed in India for imperial interests.
1882: Mumbai saw electric lighting demonstration for the first time at Crawford Market.
1882:[Travel][India][RJ] Moti Doongri was originally built in the year 1882. Till the year 1928, it was the main residence of the royal family of Alwar. After 1928, Maharaja Jai Singh decided to demolish the old palace and later built a more magnificent one in its place.
1882:[Who][Research] Rotating Magnetic Field: The sudden mental breakthrough while walking in a Budapest park in 1882 that led to the alternating current (AC) motor. (Nikola Tesla)
1882 (Oct 14):[Education][India][Public] University of the Punjab, later named changed as Panjab University on October 1, 1947. Panjab University is an Indian collegiate public state university located in Chandigarh. Funded through both State and Union governments, it is considered a state university. It traces its origins to the University of the Punjab in Lahore, which was founded in 1882. After the partition of India, the university was established on 1 October 1947, and called East Punjab University. Initially housed primarily at a cantonment in Solan, it later relocated to a newly built campus in Chandigarh, and was renamed Panjab University. It is accredited by NAAC at five star level, with the highest NAAC A++ accreditation grade. The university has 78 teaching and research departments and 10 centres/chairs for teaching and research at the main campus located at Chandigarh. It has 188 affiliated colleges spread over the eight districts of Punjab state and union-territory of Chandigarh, with Regional Centres at Muktsar, Ludhiana and Hoshiarpur. It is one of the well-ranked universities in India.
1882: The word "dynamo" was coined by Werner von Siemens. The word dynamo (from the Greek word dynamis, meaning power) was originally another name for an electrical generator, and still has some regional usage as a replacement for the word generator. The original "dynamo principle" of W. Siemens meant only the direct current generators which use exclusively the self - excitation (self-induction) principle to generate DC power. The earlier DC generators which used permanent magnets were not considered "dynamo electric machines".1882: Post Office Savings Bank in India. Postal Life Insurance developed in India for imperial interests.
1882: Mumbai saw electric lighting demonstration for the first time at Crawford Market.
1882:[Travel][India][RJ] Moti Doongri was originally built in the year 1882. Till the year 1928, it was the main residence of the royal family of Alwar. After 1928, Maharaja Jai Singh decided to demolish the old palace and later built a more magnificent one in its place.
1882: John Burdon-Sanderson working with frogs, was the first to appreciate that the interval between variations in potential was not electrically quiescent and coined the term "isoelectric interval" for this period. (ECG)
1882:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who][Women] Tarabai Shinde (c. 1850, Buldhana, Maharashtra - c. 1910); 1882 (Age: c. 32) - Published 'Stri Purush Tulana' (A Comparison Between Men and Women), a critique of patriarchy.
1882:[Maths] According to the Mathematical Association of America (MAA): While Wroński developed the concept, it was Thomas Muir who first explicitly named it the "Wronskian" in his 1882 "Treatise on the theory of determinants". The Wronskian, a determinant used to study linear independence of solutions to differential equations, originated with the Polish mathematician Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński, who introduced it in the 19th century. It was later named in his honor. While Wroński introduced the concept, some mathematical resources say it wasn't widely adopted until the 20th century.
1882:[silvics] The Royal Forestry Society was established in 1882 in Northumberland, England. Originally known as the English Arboricultural Society, the organisation was founded by forester Henry Clark and nurseryman John W Robson, both from Hexham. The Society's first President was John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham. In 1905 it was granted a Royal Charter by King Edward VII and was renamed the Royal English Arboricultural Society. It was renamed The Royal English Forestry Society in 1931, and in 1962 its title was changed to the Royal Forestry Society of England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
1883:[edu] The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) formed a dedicated department for mechanical engineering.
1883:[Education][UK][Public] Cardiff University founded.
1883:[Education][US][Public] University of Texas at Austin founded.
1883: The first working solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts.1833: The UK's Factory Act of 1833 limited the work day for children in factories. Those aged 9–13 could work only eight hours, 14–18 12 hours. Children under 9 were required to attend school.
1883:[Book] Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None, also translated as Thus Spake Zarathustra, is a work of philosophical fiction written by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche between 1883 and 1885.
1884: after 21 yeras of stay in Bombay, Shiv Narain Birla established Shivnarayan Baldevdas a trading house in Bombay in 1884.
1884: Jamnalal Bajaj born. Gandhi is known to have adopted him as his son. He is known for his efforts of promoting Khadi and village Industries in India. With the intent of eradicating untouchability, he fought the non-admission of Harijans into Hindu temples.
1884: John Thompson Platts authored A Dictionary of Urdū, Classical Hindī, and English, (Volume 1, 1259 pages) publ. by H. Milford, Oxford University, London.
1884: after 21 yeras of stay in Bombay, Shiv Narain Birla established Shivnarayan Baldevdas a trading house in Bombay in 1884.
1884: Jamnalal Bajaj born. Gandhi is known to have adopted him as his son. He is known for his efforts of promoting Khadi and village Industries in India. With the intent of eradicating untouchability, he fought the non-admission of Harijans into Hindu temples.
1884: John Thompson Platts authored A Dictionary of Urdū, Classical Hindī, and English, (Volume 1, 1259 pages) publ. by H. Milford, Oxford University, London.
1884 (Nov 9):[Business][Food] Julius Maggi experimented for two years with different methods of mechanical and chemical processing of legumes and different mixtures. The results were presented to the representatives of the Society on 19 November 1884. They approved the results and signed a contract to exclusively recommend Maggi's legumes for a period of three years. Maggi in turn guaranteed a fixed price and regular product controls for sales in Switzerland. However, the Society was accused of representing the interests of a private company. The Maggi company, on the other hand, had difficulties challenging other suppliers of soup flour on the market, despite the support of society.
Since 1884, Maggi has been offering flour made from protein-rich legumes, which can be cooked quickly by being roasted beforehand. Maggi was the first to bring such legume meals to the market.
1884:[GoI][CPSU] Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers Ltd, abbreviated as GRSE, is one of India's leading shipyards, located in Kolkata. It builds and repairs commercial and naval vessels. GRSE also exports the ships that the company builds.
1884:[India][Physics][Who] Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose (Born: 30 November 1858, Bikrampur, Dhaka, present-day Bangladesh; Died: 23 November 1937 (age 78 years), Giridih, present-day Jharkhand) was a polymath with interests in biology, physics and writing science fiction. He was a pioneer in the investigation of radio microwave optics, made significant contributions to botany, and was a major force behind the expansion of experimental science on the Indian subcontinent. Bose wanted to follow his father into the Indian Civil Service, but his father forbade it, saying his son should be a scholar who would "rule nobody but himself." Bose went to England to study medicine at the University of London, but had to quit because of ill health, possibly worsened by the chemicals used in the dissection rooms. Through the recommendation of Anandamohan Bose, his brother-in-law and the first Indian Wrangler at the University of Cambridge, Bose secured admission in Christ's College, Cambridge to study natural sciences. In 1884 he received a BA (Natural Sciences Tripos) from the University of Cambridge as well as a BSc from the University College London affiliated under University of London in 1883. Among Bose's teachers at Cambridge were Lord Rayleigh, Michael Foster, James Dewar, Francis Darwin, Francis Balfour, and Sidney Vines. While at Cambridge, he met University of Edinburgh student Prafulla Chandra Roy, with whom he became close friends.[11][12] In 1887, Bose married feminist and social worker Abala Bose.
1885: Concept of 3-Phase. Italian Galileo Ferraris realised that two windings set at an angle to each other could produce a rotating magnetic field, something of great help when motion is required, and just two years later the 3-phase alternator appeared.
1885 (Jan 6): Bhartendu Harishchandra died aged 34, He is known as the father of modern Hindi literature as well as Hindi theatre.
1885:[Tourism][Malaysia] Named for William Cameron, a geologist who first mapped the area for Britain in 1885, the Cameron Highlands are renowned for their mild climate. This wouldn't be so noteworthy except that the lush landscape is part of Malaysia, a country whose lower elevations often swelter in tropical heat. The air here is ideal for both the expansive tea plantations carpeting the rolling landscape, and for an extensive tourist trade that keeps this corner of fantastically scenic Pahang state buzzing. Fortify yourself with a few cups of tea before you head out for other Cameron Highlands attractions: rainforest hikes, temple tours, historic townships, and world-class strawberry farms. See less
1885:[tour][greece] Our image provides an unusual view of Greece's premier research academy. While most photos capture the full neoclassical façade of the Academy of Athens' main building—a sublime sight in the heart of the city—it's worthwhile to direct your gaze upward at the intricate ceiling of the portico. The circa-1885 building is full of impressive detailing, befitting a structure whose founding principle aligns with Plato's Academy. Danish architect Theophil Hansen designed the building, along with the rest of the city's renowned 'trilogy'—the National Library and the University of Athens.
1866: High courts of India - Karnataka High Court, 5th HC set-up in Bagalore, Karnataka.
1886:[Who][Physics][Telco] Known for Heaviside step function Formulating telegrapher's equations (1876) Heaviside–Lorentz units Kennelly–Heaviside layer (1902) Heaviside condition Heaviside cover-up method Reformulating Maxwell's equations (1884) Inventing operational calculus (1893) Patenting a coaxial cable (1880) Coining the term impedance (1886)
1886:[Art] The Statue of Liberty (officially named Liberty Enlightening the World and sometimes referred to as Lady Liberty) is a monument symbolising the United States.The statue is placed on Ellis Island, near New York City Harbor. The statue commemorates the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence.It was given to the United States by the people of France in 1886, to represent the friendship between the two countries established during the American Revolution.1886: Dr. John Stith Pemberton to rename and rewrite the formula for his popular nerve tonic, stimulant and headache remedy, "Pemberton's French Wine Coca," sold at that time by most, if not all, of the city's druggists.
1886: CCS renamed to Imperial Civil Service and its members were appointed under section XXXII of Government Of India Act, 1858.
1886: NIT Patna (estd. as Bihar college of Engineering, a survey training school)
1886: 11 yr old, Mileva Maric of Kac, Serbia started to explore science in depth. Travelled from Kac, Serbia to Vienna, Austria to get a book on electromagnetic theory.
1886: The origins of the hole punch date back to Germany via Matthias Theel, where two early patents for a device designed to "punch holes in paper" have since been discovered. Friedrich Soennecken filed his patent on November 14, 1886, for his Papierlocher für Sammelmappen.
1886 (May 15):[Writing] Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10, 1830 – May 15, 1886) was an American poet. Little-known during her life, she has since been regarded as one of the most important figures in American poetry. After Dickinson's death, Lavinia Dickinson kept her promise and burned most of the poet's correspondence. Significantly though, Dickinson had left no instructions about the 40 notebooks and loose sheets gathered in a locked chest. Lavinia recognized the poems' worth and became obsessed with seeing them published. She turned first to her brother's wife and then to Mabel Loomis Todd, his lover, for assistance. A feud ensued, with the manuscripts divided between the Todd and Dickinson houses, preventing complete publication of Dickinson's poetry for more than half a century.
1886:[Food] Some of specimens of mushrooms were grown by N.W. Newton and exhibited at the annual show of Agriculture, Horticulture Society of India. 1896-97: Dr. B.C. Roy of the Calcutta Medical College carried out chemical analysis of the local mushrooms prevalent in caves or mines.13-Jun-2012
1886:[Mntngg] George Mallory (aka George Herbert Leigh-Mallory; 18 June 1886 – 8 or 9 June 1924) was an English mountaineer who participated in the first three British Mount Everest expeditions in 1920s. (Mallory's Boot Tells a Chilling Story from Everest 1924)
1886:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who][Women] Kadambini Ganguly (July 18, 1861, Bhagalpur, Bengal Presidency - October 3, 1923, Calcutta, Bengal Presidency); 1886 (Age: 24-25) - One of the first two female graduates of the British Empire; one of the first female physicians in India.
1887:[edu] Chemical engineering became an academic degree in the late 19th century driven by the Industrial Revolution, with key milestones at the University of Manchester and MIT. It transitioned from a mix of chemistry and mechanical practice into a distinct science defined by unit operations.
1887:[edu] British consultant George E. Davis delivered a famous course of 12 lectures on industrial chemical practice at the University of Manchester, creating the foundation for the profession.
1887:[edu] Gantt joined Frederick Taylor at Midvale Steel, beginning their close collaboration on workflow efficiency.
1887: Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard.1887: the Central Water Tribunal was estd. and HQ'd at Kolkata.
1887: Baldeo Das Birla s/o Shivnarain Das Birla moved to Calcutta set up Baldevdas Jugalkishor.
1887 (Feb 23):[Book] "The Canterville Ghost" is a humorous short story by Oscar Wilde. It was the first of Wilde's stories to be published, appearing in two parts in The Court and Society Review, 23 February and 2 March 1887. The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890 Jul)
1887 (Dec 22): Srinivasa Ramanujan was born at Erode, Tamil Nadu. Srinivasa Ramanujan Aiyangar FRS (22 December 1887 – 26 April 1920) was an Indian mathematician. Often regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of all times. He went to Trinity College (1914–1916) and University of Cambridge (1916)
1887 (Sep 23): The Muir Central College, Allahabad stopped functioning under the University of Calcutta and hence, Allahabad University was estd. It is the fourth oldest University in India. Its origins lie in the Muir Central College, named after Lt. Governor of North-Western Provinces, Sir William Muir in 1876, who suggested the idea of a Central University at Allahabad, which later evolved to the present university. At one point it was called the "Oxford of the East".
1887 (Dec 23): [GoI] IB founded. The Intelligence Bureau is India's domestic internal security and counter-intelligence agency under Ministry of Home Affairs. It was founded in 1887 as Central Special Branch, and is reputed to be the oldest such organization in the world. Until 1968, it handled both domestic and foreign intelligence after which Research and Analysis Wing was formed specifically for foreign intelligence following that IB was primarily assigned the role of domestic intelligence and internal security.
1887: Augustus Waller invented an ECG machine consisting of a Lippmann capillary electrometer fixed to a projector. The trace from the heartbeat was projected onto a photographic plate that was itself fixed to a toy train. This allowed a heartbeat to be recorded in real time.
1887:[Telco] Heaviside recognized the "resistance operator" (impedance) as a complex number within his operational calculus. In 1887, he demonstrated an AC equivalent to Ohm's law, which laid the foundation for understanding impedance in AC circuits.
1887:[Business] Glenfiddich distillery is a Speyside single malt Scotch whisky distillery located in the Scottish burgh of Dufftown in Moray, Scotland. Is owned by William Grant & Sons. The name Glenfiddich derives from the Scottish Gaelic Gleann Fhiodhaich meaning "valley of the deer", which is reflected in Glenfiddich's stag logo.
1887:[Music][Biz] Emile Berliner patented the gramophone system using flat discs instead of cylinders.
1888:[edu] Lewis M. Norton started the first official four-year chemical engineering course in the United States at MIT as a fusion of mechanical engineering and chemistry.
1888:[Technology] George Eastman introduced the Kodak camera.
1888: first Driver's Licence was issued to Karl Benz, inventor of the modern automobile. He had to receive written permission from the Grand Ducal authorities to operate his car on public roads888 after residents complained about the noise and smell of his Motorwagen.The first mandatory license requirement for driving was introduced in the Motor Car Act 1903 in the United Kingdom. Every car owner had to register his automobile with his local government authority and be able to prove registration of his vehicle on request. The minimum qualifying age was set at 17. The license gave its holder 'freedom of the road' with a maximum 20 mph (32 km/h) speed limit. Compulsory testing was introduced in 1934, with the passing of the Road Traffic Act.
1888: Malyala Manorma estd.
1888: Moradabad Hail was a severe hailstorm that occurred on 30 April 1888 in Moradabad, in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. One of the deadliest, it killed around 230 people and 1600 cattle and sheep. Reportedly, the hailstones were as big as oranges and in some places accumulated to up to 2 feet in height.
1888:[Culture][Kinky] slang for vagina - Alter of Pleasure
1888:[GeoPolitics][Business] The Constantinople Convention (October 29th, 1888): An agreement was made between France, Austria, Hungary, Spain, Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia and Turkey to draw a final system that ensures freedom of navigation through the Suez Canal.
1888:The Cow & Gate company originated in the United Kingdom, founded in 1888 as a British dairy products company that expanded into milk bottling, distribution, and baby food production. After merging with United Dairies in 1959 to form Unigate plc, the Cow & Gate brand was acquired by the Netherlands-based company Numico, which is now part of the Danone group.
1888:[military][med] The Indian Military Nursing Services (MNS) is a part of the Armed Forces Medical Services (AFMS) of the Indian Army, originally formed under British rule in 1888.
1889:[Economics][Research] Friedrich von Wieser introduced the term "marginal utility" (Grenznutzen).
1889 (Jun):[Art] Vincent van Gogh's The Starry Night, an oil on canvas painting by Dutch Post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh. Painted in June 1889, it depicts the view from the east-facing window of his asylum room at Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, just before sunrise, with the addition of an imaginary village.
1889: Lee, an American denim jeans brand founded at Merriam, Kansas.
1889: Jawaharlal Nehru born.1889: Swami Sahajanand Saraswati born in Ghazipur district, North-Western Provinces in British India, was an ascetic, a nationalist and a peasant leader of India. He authored Ab Kya ho?, Brahman Kaun?, Mera Jeewan Sangharsha, Jhootha Bhay Mithya Abhiman, Karmakalap and many others. Walter Hauser has translated some of his work into English.
1889:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who][Women] Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati (April 23, 1858, Mangalore, Madras Presidency - April 5, 1922, Kedgaon, Maharashtra); 1889 (Age: 30-31) - Founded the Sharada Sadan for the education of child widows; renowned scholar and social reformer.
1889:[Music][Biz] Music labels began gaining commercial traction in the late 1890s and early 1900s, shortly after Columbia Records was founded in 1889. Traction exploded as the gramophone replaced early phonographs, turning recorded music into a mass-market product.
1890s:[Economics][Research] While Pareto is not credited with the invention of marginal utility, he is noted for later applying it to demand analysis, particularly in the 1890s and onwards.
1890s: United States has been the biggest kid on the block since I think around 1890 from an economic standpoint. (lexfridman.com/elon-musk #4)
1890s:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who][Women] Ramabai Ranade (January 25, 1862, Devrashtre, Maharashtra - January 25, 1924, Pune, Maharashtra); Late 19th - early 20th century (Active from 1890s onwards, Age: 30s-60s) - Co-founded the Seva Sadan society; worked extensively for women's education and social welfare.
1890s:[India][Culture][Extreme][Who][Women] Sister Nivedita (October 28, 1867, Dungannon, Ireland - October 13, 1911, Darjeeling, Bengal Presidency); Early 20th century (Active from late 1890s, Age: 30s-40s) - Disciple of Swami Vivekananda; worked for women's education, nursing, and national awakening in India.
1890: Sardar Bahadur Sir Sobha Singh OBE [1890-1978] was a civil contractor and a prominent builder of Lutyens' Delhi and real estate owner of Delhi. He is the father of famous Indian writer Khushwant Singh.
1890:[Business][Polity][mgmt] [Business][Polity][mgmt] Bengal Chamber - James Lyle Mackay, later first Earl of Inchcape, was elected president of the Chamber in 1890, and Ernest Cable in 1903,[6] followed by Sir Apcar Alexander Apcar KCSI from 1904 to 1907. Archibald Birkmyre (1875–1935) was vice-president, and John Jardine Paterson was President in 1966.
1890:[Book] Alfred Thayer Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1660-1783).
1890:[Books] Emily Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830, in Amherst, Massachusetts. While she was extremely prolific as a poet and regularly enclosed poems in letters to friends, she was not publicly recognized during her lifetime. She died in Amherst in 1886, and the first volume of her work was published posthumously in 1890. I cannot live with You. and 'I’m wife — I’ve finished that' is also known as “Apocalypse”, the title under which it was published after the poet’s death. It addresses the dilemma of nineteenth century women. This poem spells out the plight of women in a society that denied them independence and respect as thinking human beings. Society deemed that “true” womanhood could only exist in the state of marriage, where a woman was defined as wife and mother. Dickinson contrasts the state of being a “spinster" with being a wife. The lives of women in these categories were vastly different. A spinster was, in effect, a social failure, pitied and patronised. The only “safe” route for a woman was marriage in a patriarchal, controlling society, where she was little more than her husband’s property. Emily Dickinson remained single throughout her life, so the persona in the poem is an invented one.
1890:[Technology][Medicine] Polish physiologist Adolf Beck published an investigation of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs that included rhythmic oscillations altered by light. Beck started experiments on the electrical brain activity of animals. Beck placed electrodes directly on the surface of the brain to test for sensory stimulation. His observation of fluctuating brain activity led to the conclusion of brain waves. (EEG)
1890:[SpaceX] Tabby's Star (designated as KIC 8462852 in the Kepler Input Catalog, and also known by the names Boyajian's Star and WTF(Where'sTheFlux?)[8] Star) is a binary star in the constellation Cygnus approximately 1,470 light-years (450 parsecs) from Earth. The system is composed of an F-type main-sequence star and a red dwarf companion. A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure that encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its power output. Does Tabby's star have planets? Planetary debris field - As with the possibility of coalescing material around the star, spectroscopic studies using the NASA IRTF found no evidence for hot close-in dust or circumstellar matter from an evaporating or exploding planet within a few astronomical units of the central star.
1890:The continent of Antarctica was officially named by Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew in 1890, based on the ancient Greek word "antarktikos" meaning "opposite the Arctic". While earlier references to an "Antarctic" region or "Terra Australis" (South Land) existed, Bartholomew was the first to apply the name Antarctica to the continent itself on a map.
1890:[Bio][Chemistry] Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): Discovered in the 1890s by Christiaan Eijkman, with isolation from rice polishings in 1926 by Barend Jansen and Willem Donath.
1891: first mechanically automated telephone switch.
1891:[Who] Professor Birbal Sahni (1891–1949) was a world-renowned Indian paleobotanist and geologist. Known as the "Father of Indian Palaeobotany," he pioneered the study of ancient plant fossils on the Indian subcontinent and founded the famous research center now called the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences in Lucknow in 1946.
1891:[crime][gov] The first slot machine mechanism is built by Sittman and Pitt in New York, followed shortly by Charles Fey's famous "Liberty Bell" machine in San Francisco.
1892: Indian Councils Act, 1892.
1892:[Business][Food] Britannia Industries Limited is an Indian multinational FMCG company specialized in fthe ood industry, part of the Wadia Group headed by Nusli Wadia. Founded in 1892 and headquartered in Kolkata, it is one of India's oldest existing companies and best known for its biscuit products. The company sells biscuits, breads and dairy products throughout India and abroad.
1893:[Art] The Scream is the popular name given to a composition created by Norwegian Expressionist artist Edvard Munch.
1893: Bell's Telephone patents expired. They existed for 17 yrs. Around 1893, the country leading the world in telephones per 100 persons (teledensity) was Sweden with 0.55 in the whole country but 4 in Stockholm (10,000 out of a total of 27,658 subscribers). This compares with 0.4 in USA for that year.
Competition between the International Bell Telephone Company (a U.S. multinational), town and village co-operatives, the General Telephone Company of Stockholm (a Swedish private company), and the Swedish Telegraph Department (part of the Swedish government).
In 1893, the U.S. was considerably behind Sweden, New Zealand, Switzerland, and Norway in teledensity. The U.S. rose to world leadership in teledensity with the rise of many independent telephone companies after the Bell patents expired in 1893 and 1894.
1893: The melody of "Happy Birthday to You" comes from the song "Good Morning to All", which has been attributed to American siblings Patty Hill and Mildred J. Hill in 1893.
1893: an accidental meeting between Jamsedji N. Tata and Swami Vivekananda on a ship sailing from Japan to Chicago, which led to the foundations of IISc, Bangluru in 1909.
1893: Gandhi, aged 24, arrived in South Africa to work as a legal representative for the Muslim Indian Traders based in the city of Pretoria. He spent 21 years in South Africa, where he developed his political views, ethics and political leadership skills.
1893: Birjis Qadr, the last nawab of Awadh died.
1893(Mar 1):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Mary Taylor died aged 76 as an early advocate for women's rights.
1893:[Technology] Francis Galton invented the Galton whistle, an adjustable whistle that produced ultrasound, which he used to measure the hearing range of humans and other animals, demonstrating that many animals could hear sounds above the hearing range of humans. (Ultrasound)
1893:[Telco] In 1893, Arthur Kennelly published a paper that significantly influenced the understanding and application of impedance. Heaviside's work with operational calculus, which included defining the operational impedance, was crucial for developing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).
1893:[US][GeoPolitics] overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. (US's involvement in regime change)
1893:[Telco] (waveguide) J. J. Thomson proposes confining electromagnetic waves in metal tubes.
1894: PNB estd. by Lala Lajpat Rai
1894: Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book
1894:[Chemistry] The earliest mention of 2-phenoxyethanol in the chemical literature appeared in 1894, when Ernst Roithner at the University of Vienna published a treatise on ethylene oxide. In the article, Roithner described the synthesis of 2-phenoxyethanol via the reaction of ethylene oxide with phenol in a basic medium. It is an ether used as a fragrance or preservative that's considered practically non-toxic when ingested and non-irritating when diluted. (safe preservative)
1895:[Business][Polity][mgmt] The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) is a premier, non-government, not-for-profit, industry-led organization in India that works to create a conducive environment for industrial growth. Founded in 1895 and evolving over a century, it boasts over 9,000 members, playing a proactive role in India's development through policy advocacy, business consulting, and networking.
1895 (Dec 22):[Technology][Art] 'I have seen my death.' - Words said by Mrs. Rontegen when the first X-Ray photograph of her left hand (wearing wedding ring) was printed. This was followed by the CRT experiments by Wilhelm Rontegen. He covered the tube with black cardboard to shield its fluorescent glow, and, shortly after, noticed beams escaping several feet to a nearby plate made of barium platino-cyanide.1895: Invention of Radio by Guglielmo Marconi (Italy)
1895: The first generators at the Niagara Falls project, built by Westinghouse in 1895, were 25 Hz, because the turbine speed had already been set before alternating current power transmission had been definitively selected.
1895: The American philosopher and psychologist William James used the term 'multiverse' for the very first time, but in a different context to that of Schrodinger in 1952.
1895: screening of the Lumière moving pictures in London. became a sensation across Europe and by July 1896 the Lumière films had been in show in Bombay. (history of cinema in India)
1895 (May 11): Jiddu Krishnamurti was born in Madanapalle (AP), India
1895:[Physics] Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg) the following year.
1895:[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Eventually Nicholls agreed to give Clement Shorter unlimited access to his Brontë archive. Clement King Shorter (19 July 1857 – 19 November 1926) was a British journalist and literary critic.
1895:[Music][Biz] The E. Berliner Gramophone company was established in 1895 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by inventor Emile Berliner, following his 1887 patent for the flat-disc gramophone and lateral-cut recording system.
1896:[Research][Physics][Space] The Boltzmann brain thought experiment suggests that it might be more likely for a single brain to spontaneously form in a void, complete with a memory of having existed in our universe, rather than for the entire universe to come about in the manner cosmologists think it actually did. Physicists use the Boltzmann brain thought experiment as a reductio ad absurdum argument for evaluating competing scientific theories. The idea is named after the physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906), who, in 1896, published a theory that tried to account for the fact that the universe is not as chaotic as the budding field of thermodynamics seemed to predict. He offered several explanations, one of them being that the universe, even after it had progressed to its most likely spread-out and featureless state of thermal equilibrium, would spontaneously fluctuate to a more ordered (or low-entropy) state such as the universe in which we find ourselves. Boltzmann brains were first proposed as a reductio ad absurdum response to this explanation by Boltzmann for the low-entropy state of our universe.
1896:[GeoPolitics][Book] Theodore Herzl: Considered the father of modern political Zionism, his 1896 work Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) and the subsequent First Zionist Congress in Wikipedia mobilized the movement.
1897: electron was dicovered by JJ Thomson (Cambridge, UK).
1897 (Jan 7): Commissioning of electric plant in Darjeeling (The first hydroelectric installation in India was installed near a tea estate at Sidrapong for the Darjeeling Municipality). [Power development in India]. Kilburn & Co secured the Calcutta electric lighting licence as agents of the Indian Electric Co, which was registered in London on 15 January 1897. A month later, the company was renamed the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation.
1897 (Jan 7): Commissioning of electric plant in Darjeeling (The first hydroelectric installation in India was installed near a tea estate at Sidrapong for the Darjeeling Municipality). [Power development in India]. Kilburn & Co secured the Calcutta electric lighting licence as agents of the Indian Electric Co, which was registered in London on 15 January 1897. A month later, the company was renamed the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation.
1897:[Physics] at the age of 17, Einstein enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900.
1897:[Art] French Impressionist Claude Monet (1840–1926) picked his preference, subject and perspective for Water Lilies and started painting them, he painted a series of approximately 250 oil paintings. The paintings depict his flower garden at his home in Giverny.
1897 (Nov 26):[Books][Drama][UK][Who] Ellen Nussey died aged 80 as a lifelong friend, correspondent and potential lover of writer Charlotte Brontë.
1897: Founder Karl Elsener started a cutlery workshop. In 1897, he developed the "Original Swiss Army Knife" & named the co. Victorinox, by combining his mum's name Victoria with Inox - meaning stainless steel.
1897:[Day] Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose was born on 23 January 1897 in Cuttack, Orissa. He was one of the most prominent Indian freedom fighters. His army was known as Indian National Army (INA) or Azad Hind Fauj. He also led an Indian national force from abroad against the Western powers during World War II.
1897: Binomial name given to bagworm, Phereoeca uterella (Walsingham, 1897) Phereoeca uterella, known by the vernacular names plaster bagworm and household casebearer, is a moth species in family Tineidae. It occurs in tropical climates, where it is common in houses, and is presumed native to the Neotropical realm. In the Americas, it has been recorded from Brazil, Guyana, and the southern United States as well as the Virgin Islands and Trinidad, and tentatively identified from Tobago.
1897:[Bio][Chemistry] Thiamine (Vitamin B1) was isolated in 1897 by Umetaro Suzuki from rice bran. Thiamine was the first of the B vitamins to be identified.
1897:[History][India] The Battle of Saragarhi: 21 vs. 10,000. 21 Sikh soldiers of the British Indian Army were stationed at Saragarhi, Pakistan. They were attacked by over 10,000 Afghan tribesmen. Refusing to surrender, they fought to the last man, delaying the enemy long enough for reinforcements to save other posts.
1897:[Telco] (waveguide) Lord Rayleigh provides the foundational mathematical analysis of propagation modes and cutoff frequencies.
1898:[Women][Education] The phrase "the admission of women would overthrow all academic order" is a quote from the Academic Senate of Erlangen University in 1898. This statement reflects the widespread prejudice against co-education at the time and was cited to prevent Emmy Noether, a pioneering female mathematician, from enrolling as a regular student, forcing her to audit classes and obtain permission from individual professors to attend lectures.
1898:[Education][India][Public] Central Hindu College, founded by Indian Home Rule-leaguer and Theosophist, Annie Besant, which later got incorporated by the Banaras Hindu University, a collegiate, central, and research university located in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, during its foundation in 1916.
1898: The committee setup by Tata presented a draft proposal to Lord Curzon on setting up IISc Banglore. Subsequently, Prof. Sir William Ramsay, a Nobel Laureate, was called on to propose a suitable place for such an institution who suggested Bangalore as the best location.
1898: Indian Post Office Act, 1898.
1898:[Travel][India][RJ] Laxmi Niwas Palace was the residence of the king of Bikaner, Maharaja Ganga Singh. Built between 1898 and 1902 by British architect Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob, this structure displays an Indo-Saracenic architectural style. It is now a luxury hotel.
1898 (Jun 17): M.C. Escher born
1898: The evolving revolutionary movement in the Philippines declares itself independent from the Spanish Empire.1898: The committee setup by Tata presented a draft proposal to Lord Curzon on setting up IISc Banglore. Subsequently, Prof. Sir William Ramsay, a Nobel Laureate, was called on to propose a suitable place for such an institution who suggested Bangalore as the best location.
1898: Indian Post Office Act, 1898.
1898:[Travel][India][RJ] Laxmi Niwas Palace was the residence of the king of Bikaner, Maharaja Ganga Singh. Built between 1898 and 1902 by British architect Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob, this structure displays an Indo-Saracenic architectural style. It is now a luxury hotel.
1898:In 1898, Winston Churchill, then a young army officer and aspiring writer, participated in the British military campaign in Sudan, specifically the Battle of Omdurman. He also began writing "The River War," an account of the campaign, and secured a position as a correspondent for The Morning Post. Churchill was part of the 21st Lancers and participated in the Battle of Omdurman in September. He witnessed and took part in one of the last British cavalry charges. He secured a commission to write for The Morning Post and produced 15 articles about the Sudan campaign, which were published between September and October.
1898 (Dec 2): On 2 December 1898, Churchill embarked for India to settle his military business and complete his resignation. He spent much time playing polo, the only ball sport in which he was ever interested. Having left the Hussars, he sailed from Bombay on 20 March 1899, determined to launch a career in politics. Before his Sudan assignment, Churchill had spent time in India, including Calcutta, Meerut, and Peshawar, and explored the possibility of joining Kitchener's campaign.
1898–1899:[US][GeoPolitics] occupation of the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam. (US's involvement in regime change)
1898–1902:[US][GeoPolitics] occupation of Cuba. (US's involvement in regime change)
1899:[Business][Politics][Economics][Research] The Veblen effect describes an economic phenomenon where demand for certain luxury goods—known as Veblen goods—increases as their price rises, contradicting the standard law of demand. Coined by Thorstein Veblen in 1899, it highlights that high prices increase the allure of products (e.g., Rolexes, luxury cars) as status symbols, driven by conspicuous consumption.
1899:[who]research] Nikola Tesla began developing his global wireless power concept in the 1890s, conducting major experiments in 1899 in Colorado Springs and starting construction on his global Wardenclyffe Tower project in New York in 1901. 1899–1900: Built a high-altitude laboratory in Colorado Springs to test large-scale transmission through the Earth.1901: Began building the Wardenclyffe Tower (World Wireless System) with backing from J.P. Morgan to supply free global power and communication.1906: Project lost funding and was abandoned before global wireless transmission was achieved.
1899:[extreme][who] The longest-ruling individual monarch was Sobhuza II of Swaziland (1899-1892), who reigned for 82 years and 254 days, while the longest-reigning ruler of a sovereign state was Louis XIV of France (1638-715; reign: 1643-1715) at 72 years, 3 months, and 18 days. The largest empire in terms of land area was the British Empire, and the largest empire on the Indian subcontinent was the Maurya Empire under Ashoka.
1899:[Education] Hindu College of Delhi University established.
1899:[Technology] The first Ni–Cd battery was created by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden. At that time, the only direct competitor was the lead–acid battery, which was less physically and chemically robust
1899:[Jack] Shri Ram Chandra of Shahjahanpur, affectionately known as Babuji was born, died in 1983. He was tutored by Lalaji (Ram Chandra of Fatehgarh). He was succeeded by Chariji (Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari) and by Daaji (Shri Kamlesh D. Patel)
1899: Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899.
1899: Veblen goods are named after American economist Thorstein Veblen [1857-1929], who first identified conspicuous consumption as a mode of status-seeking in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899).
1899: Edison cylinder phonograph.
1899:[Jack] Shri Ram Chandra of Shahjahanpur, affectionately known as Babuji was born, died in 1983. He was tutored by Lalaji (Ram Chandra of Fatehgarh). He was succeeded by Chariji (Parthasarathi Rajagopalachari) and by Daaji (Shri Kamlesh D. Patel)
1899: Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899.
1899: Veblen goods are named after American economist Thorstein Veblen [1857-1929], who first identified conspicuous consumption as a mode of status-seeking in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899).
1899: Edison cylinder phonograph.
1899:The Indian Stamp Act, 1899 was enacted by the British colonial government to consolidate and amend varying provincial tax laws into a single, comprehensive fiscal statute. It was passed by the Imperial Legislative Assembly, received assent on January 27, 1899, and came into force on July 1, 1899.
1899:The Indian Stamp Act, 1899 is a fundamental fiscal statute governing the imposition, collection, and administration of stamp duties on legal and financial instruments. Its primary goals are to generate state revenue and ensure that important documents carry the necessary legal validity and enforceability.
1899: Both agreements and bonds must be executed on stamp paper for legal enforcement, admissibility as evidence in court, and to comply with the Indian Stamp Act, 1899.
1899:[Book] The Interpretation of Dreams (German: Die Traumdeutung) is an 1899 book by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in which the author introduces his theory of the unconscious with respect to dream interpretation, and discusses what would later become the theory of the Oedipus complex.
1899:[Research][Chemistry][Who] In 1899 Barkla was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, with an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, to work in the Cavendish Laboratory under the physicist J. J. Thomson (discoverer of the electron). During his first two years at Cambridge, under the directions of Thomson, Barkla studied the velocity of electromagnetic waves along wires of different widths and materials. The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in Charles Barkla's and Henry Moseley's X-ray absorption studies.
1899:[Crime] Al Capone (1899-1947) Earning the nicknames Scarface, Big Al, Big Boy, and Snorky, Alphonse Gabriel Capone was born in New York.
1899:[Extreme][Research] USS Nero, a converted collier, recorded a depth of Mariana trench to be 5,269 fathoms (9,636 metres; 31,614 feet).
1899: Hague Convention of 199 banned use of the projectile bombs carrying chemical weapons.
1899 (Oct 11): The Second Boer War, also known as the South African War, was fought between the British Empire and the two Boer republics (the South African Republic and the Orange Free State) from October 11, 1899, to May 31, 1902. The conflict ended with a British victory, leading to the annexation of both Boer republics. The war stemmed from British expansionist ambitions in Southern Africa and the desire to control the region's rich gold and diamond mines. The Treaty of Vereeniging officially ended the war, with the Boer republics being annexed by the British.
The war had a lasting impact on South Africa, contributing to the eventual formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910. It also highlighted the challenges of colonial warfare and the human cost of conflict.
Colonel Jack Seely and Winston Churchill had a close friendship forged during the Second Boer War in South Africa and continued into their political careers. Both men served in the war, earning distinction and later using their war records to gain election to Parliament. They became political allies, leaving the Conservative party to become Liberals and eventually serving together in the Liberal Government Cabinet.
1899:[History] Is 1899 Victorian or Edwardian? In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, from her accession on 20 June 1837—after the death of her uncle, William IV—until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII.
1899:Founded: 1899 (Indian Hotels Company Limited incorporated) The Taj Group was founded in 1899 by Jamsetji Tata, with the first hotel, The Taj Mahal Palace, opening in 1903. The Oberoi Group was founded in 1934 by Rai Bahadur Mohan Singh Oberoi. First Properties of the Oberoi's: Acquired The Maidens in Delhi and The Clarke's in Shimla.
1899:[silvics][who] Toumey, James W. (James William), 1865-1932; James W. Toumey Born: Lawrence, MI 4/17/1864; died 1932. Education: Michigan Agric. College (B.S. 1889; M.S. 1896); Yale (M.A. 1906). James Toumey (1865–1932) was a pioneer in American forestry, an influential botanist, and a distinguished educator at the Yale School of Forestry.
Beginning in 1899, Toumey briefly held a position with the U.S. Forest Service in charge of the cooperative work of tree planting. In 1900 Toumey was called to join the faculty of Yale's newly established school of forestry. He was promoted to professor of forestry in 1903, and was later appointed Morris K. Jessup Professor of Silviculture, which chair he held until his death.[1] When Henry Solon Graves left Yale to become chief of the U.S. Forest Service in 1910, Toumey became Dean. From 1910 to 1922 he served as Dean of the Yale School of Forestry.
20th century CE started on 1st Jan 1901 AD.
The century of world wars...
1970s:[tour][greece] The first thing to know about Monemvasia is right there in its name, which means 'one way in.' Like the Greek city's medieval walls, the description still holds up 15 centuries later: The western gate (at left—look for the cars!) still guards the only road to town, which approaches from a narrow causeway. If you're on foot, though, you can make a sneaky sidestep via a cliffside staircase (at center in our photo). It'll bring you to the upper city, uninhabited since the late 17th century but offering expansive views of the Aegean Sea and mainland Peloponnese. See less
📌 - landmark
21st century CE started on 1st Jan 2001 AD.
Comments
Post a Comment